Glucocorticoid Withdrawal Syndrome following treatment of endogenous Cushing Syndrome

Posted on May 20, 2022 by MaryO

Abstract

Purpose:

Literature regarding endogenous Cushing syndrome (CS) largely focuses on the challenges of diagnosis, subtyping, and treatment. The enigmatic phenomenon of glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome (GWS), due to rapid reduction in cortisol exposure following treatment of CS, is less commonly discussed but also difficult to manage. We highlight the clinical approach to navigating patients from GWS and adrenal insufficiency to full hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis recovery.

Methods:

We review the literature on the pathogenesis of GWS and its clinical presentation. We provide strategies for glucocorticoid dosing and tapering, HPA axis testing, as well as pharmacotherapy and ancillary treatments for GWS symptom management.

Results:

GWS can be difficult to differentiate from adrenal insufficiency and CS recurrence, which complicates glucocorticoid dosing and tapering regimens. Monitoring for HPA axis recovery requires both clinical and biochemical assessments. The most important intervention is reassurance to patients that GWS symptoms portend a favorable prognosis of sustained remission from CS, and GWS typically resolves as the HPA axis recovers. GWS also occurs during medical management of CS, and gradual dose titration based primarily on symptoms is essential to maintain adherence and to eventually achieve disease control. Myopathy and neurocognitive dysfunction can be chronic complications of CS that do not completely recover.

Conclusions:

Due to limited data, no guidelines have been developed for management of GWS. Nevertheless, this article provides overarching themes derived from published literature plus expert opinion and experience. Future studies are needed to better understand the pathophysiology of GWS to guide more targeted and optimal treatments.

Introduction

Endogenous neoplastic hypercortisolism – Cushing syndrome (CS) – is one of the most challenging diagnostic and management problems in clinical endocrinology. CS may be due to either a pituitary tumor (Cushing disease, CD), or a non-pituitary (ectopic) tumor secreting ACTH. ACTH-independent hypercortisolism due to unilateral or bilateral adrenal nodular disease has been increasingly recognized as an important cause of CS. Regardless of the cause of CS, the clinical manifestations are protean and include a myriad of clinical, biochemical, neurocognitive, and neuropsychiatric abnormalities. The catabolic state of hypercortisolism causes signs and symptoms including skin fragility, bruising, delayed healing, violaceous striae, muscle weakness, and low bone mass with fragility fractures. Other clinical features include weight gain, fatigue, depression, difficulty concentrating, insomnia, facial plethora, and fat redistribution to the head and neck with resultant supraclavicular and dorsocervical fullness[1]. Metabolic consequences of hypercortisolism including hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia are common. In addition, women often experience hirsutism and menstrual irregularity, while men may have hypogonadism.

Management options of CS include surgery, medications, and radiation. The preferred first line treatment, regardless of source, is surgery, which offers the potential for remission[2,3,4]. The primary literature, reviews, and clinical practice guidelines for CS have traditionally focused on the diagnosis, subtyping, and surgical approach to CS. This bias derives first from the profound diagnostic challenge posed in the evaluation of cortisol production and dynamics, given that circulating cortisol follows a circadian rhythm, exhibits extensive protein binding and metabolism, and rises acutely with stress. CD and ectopic ACTH syndrome may be difficult to distinguish clinically and biochemically, and inferior petrosal sinus sampling is required in many patients to resolve this differential diagnosis. Ectopic ACTH-producing tumors can also be small, and these tumors can escape localization despite the best current methods. Although diagnosis and initial surgical remission can be achieved in the majority of patient with CS at experienced centers, up to 50% of patients with CD will require additional therapies after unsuccessful primary surgeries or recurrence up to many years later[5]. For patients who do not achieve surgical cure or who are not surgical candidates, several medical treatment options are now available. Pharmacotherapies directed at the pituitary include pasireotide[6, 7] (FDA approved) and cabergoline[8]. Adrenal steroidogenesis inhibitors such as osilodrostat[9] (FDA approved), metyrapone[10], levoketoconazole[11] (FDA approved) and ketoconazole[12], as well as the glucocorticoid antagonist, mifepristone[13] (FDA approved), are now widely used to treat CS. Pituitary radiotherapy is an additional treatment option for CD but can take months to years to lower cortisol production. Bilateral adrenalectomy (BLA) provides immediate, reliable correction of hypercortisolism but mandates life-long corticosteroid replacement therapy, and, in patients with CD, may be complicated by corticotroph tumor progression syndrome in 25–40% of patients[14].

After successful surgery for CS, the rapid onset of adrenal insufficiency (AI) is anticipated and usually portends a favorable prognosis [15,16,17,18]; however, despite the use of post-operative corticosteroid replacement, the rapid reduction in cortisol exposure often results in an enigmatic phenomenon referred to as the glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome (GWS). This article addresses the clinical presentation and the pathogenesis of GWS, as well as its distinction from AI. When available, appropriate references are provided. Statements and guidance provided without references are derived from expert opinion and experience.

Clinical Presentation and Pathogenesis of GWS

GWS occurs following withdrawal of supraphysiologic exposure to either exogenous or endogenous glucocorticoids of at least several months duration[19]. After surgical cure of endogenous CS, GWS is usually characterized by biochemical evidence of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression with many signs and symptoms consistent with cortisol deficiency despite the use of supraphysiologic glucocorticoid replacement therapy. The degree of physical or psychologic glucocorticoid dependence experienced by patients may not correlate with the degree of HPA axis suppression[20, 21].

GWS symptom onset is typically 3–10 days postoperatively, often after the patient has been discharged from the hospital. The first symptoms of GWS vary but usually consist of myalgias, muscle weakness, fatigue, and hypersomnolence. Anorexia, nausea, and abdominal discomfort are common, but vomiting should raise concern for hyponatremia, cerebrospinal fluid leak, hydrocephalus, or other perioperative complications. Mood changes develop more gradually and range from mood swings to depression, and the fatigue with myalgias can exacerbate mood changes. An atypical depressive disorder has been described in many patients after CD surgery[22]. Weight loss should ensue in most patients but gradually and proportionate to the reduction in glucocorticoid exposure. It is important to complete a thorough symptom review and physical exam at postoperative visits, as the differentiation between GWS and bona fide AI – and even between GWS and recurrence of CS – can be challenging (Fig. 1). All three conditions are associated with symptoms of myalgias, weakness, and fatigue; however, rapid weight loss, hypoglycemia, and hypotension are suggestive of AI and the need for an increase in the glucocorticoid dose. In parallel, hypersomnia is more suggestive of GWS, while insomnia is more associated with recurrence of CS. Given the anticipation of GWS onset shortly after discharge and the potential for hyponatremia during this time, a widely employed strategy is a generous glucocorticoid dose for the first 2–3 weeks, at least until the first postoperative outpatient visit (Table 1).

Fig. 1

figure 1

Overlapping clinical features of Cushing syndrome (CS), glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome (GWS), and adrenal insufficiency (AI)

Table 1 Glucocorticoid Therapy Options After Surgery for CS

The mechanisms responsible for the precipitation of the GWS after surgery for CS and the variability in its manifestations are not completely understood, yet alterations in the regulation of cortisol and cortisol-responsive genes appear to contribute. Down-regulation of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) expression, combined with up-regulation of cytokines and prostaglandins are likely to be important components of GWS. Low CRH has been associated with atypical depression[23], and CRH levels in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with CD are significantly lower compared to healthy subjects[24]. CRH suppression gradually resolves after surgical cure over 12 months during glucocorticoid replacement[25], illustrative of the slow recovery process. The expression of POMC, the ACTH precursor molecule, is also suppressed with chronic glucocorticoid exposure[26], and the normalization of POMC-associated peptides mirrors HPA axis recovery[19]. In the acute phase of glucocorticoid withdrawal, interleukins IL-6 and IL-1β, as well as tumor-necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) have been observed to rise[27], suggesting that glucocorticoid-mediated suppression of cytokines and prostaglandins is then released in GWS, and these cytokines induce the associated flu-like symptoms. Glucocorticoid replacement with dexamethasone 0.5 mg/d reduced but did not normalize IL-6 after 4–5 days[27], consistent with resistance to suppression during GWS.

Acute Care: Perioperative Planning, Coaching, and Management

For patients with CD, transsphenoidal surgery performed by an experienced surgeon achieves remission in about 80% of pituitary microadenomas and 60% of macroadenomas[28,29,30,31]. Post-operative AI and GWS are some of the most challenging phases of management for endocrinologists and one of the most disheartening for CS patients. Many patients report feeling unprepared for the postsurgical recovery process[32]. For these reasons, it is important to prepare the patient prior to surgery for the difficult months ahead, and the same considerations apply to the commencement of medical therapies, as will be discussed later. On the one hand, more potent glucocorticoids and higher doses reliably mitigate symptoms, but on the other hand, substitution of exogenous for endogenous CS delays recovery of the HPA axis and perpetuates CS-related co-morbidities. Limited data that compare management strategies preclude evidence-based decisions, yet some themes can be derived from expert opinion and extensive experience from CS centers.

In centers dedicated to the management of CS, surgeons and endocrinologists work closely together through all phases of the process. Although the goal of primary surgery for CD is adenoma resection, the tumor might not be found and/or removed completely after initial exploration. To prepare for this possibility, the surgeon should determine in advance with the patient and endocrinologist what to do next in this situation – dissect further, perform a hypophysectomy or hemi-hypophysectomy, or stop the operation. The plan for perioperative testing and glucocorticoid treatment varies widely among centers. The conundrum faced in the immediate perioperative period is that withholding glucocorticoids allows for rapid testing and demonstration of remission; however, complete resection of the causative tumor causes AI from prolonged suppression of the HPA axis and concerns for acute decompensation. Abundant evidence has shown that post-pituitary adenomectomy patients are not at risk for an adrenal crisis when monitored closely in an intensive care unit or equivalent setting[33]. Many studies have confirmed that post-operative AI almost always suggests a remission of CD[15,16,17,18, 34]. A standard protocol includes securing serum electrolytes and cortisol, plasma ACTH, capillary blood glucose, blood pressure, and urine specific gravity every 6 h for 24–48 h while withholding all glucocorticoids. Consecutive serum cortisol values less than 2–5 µg/dL (we use < 3 µg/dL) are sufficient to document successful tumor resection and to begin glucocorticoid therapy[35]. Post-operative signs and symptoms of AI including vomiting, hyponatremia, hypoglycemia, and hypotension should also mandate immediate glucocorticoid support. Although not clinically useful in the immediate post-operative period, some investigators have shown that low ACTH and DHEAS levels may be better predictors of long-term remission than serum cortisol[36]. A similar strategy for the management of possible post-operative AI/GWS following unilateral adrenalectomy for nodular adrenal disease has recently been reported. A post-operative day 1 basal cortisol and its response to cosyntropin stimulation can reliably segregate those patients with HPA axis suppression requiring cortisol replacement from those with an intact HPA axis who do not need to be discharged with glucocorticoid therapy[37].

Once remission is achieved, exogenous glucocorticoid replacement should be initiated and maintained during the months required for HPA axis recovery. Several glucocorticoids and dosing options are available (Table 1), and the initial dose is generally 3- to 4-fold higher than the physiologic range and graded based on age, comorbidities, and severity of disease. Fludrocortisone acetate should also be initiated following BLA for patients who receive glucocorticoids other than hydrocortisone, the only glucocorticoid with mineralocorticoid activity. By comparison, post-BLA patients receiving supraphysiologic hydrocortisone doses usually do not need mineralocorticoid support until their dose is tapered to near physiologic replacement. In the acute postoperative period, several medical comorbidities accompanying CS may reverse rapidly and require medication adjustments[35]. In particular, insulin and oral hypoglycemic drugs, potassium-sparing diuretics such as spironolactone, and other cardiovascular drugs are typically tapered or discontinued as glucose counter-regulation and electrolyte balance change rapidly upon cortisol reduction. Due to the high risk of postoperative venous thromboembolism[38,39,40], prophylaxis is frequently recommended and continued for several weeks after discharge. Posterior pituitary manipulation can disturb water balance and result in serum sodium alterations, including transient or permanent central diabetes insipidus, and in rare cases the triphasic response of diabetes insipidus, followed by syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH), and finally permanent diabetes insipidus[41, 42]. In the first week or two after discharge, the most common cause for readmission is hyponatremia[43, 44], although the mechanisms responsible for this transient SIADH state are not known. For this reason, patients should be instructed to drink only when thirsty and not as an alternative to solid foods or for social reasons for 7–10 days after the surgery. Both diabetes insipidus and SIADH may not manifest for weeks after surgery; consequently, serum sodium should be monitored after hospital discharge as well [42].

Subacute Care: The GWS and HPA Axis Recovery

When managing GWS symptoms, it is important to repeatedly emphasize to the patient that not only are GWS symptoms to be expected, but in fact these manifestations portend a favorable prognosis of sustained remission from CS. The most important treatment intervention is frequent reassurance to the patient that GWS typically resolves as the HPA axis recovers. Family members must be included in the conversation to help provide as much support as possible, as patients report that support from family and friends is the most helpful coping mechanism during the recovery process[32]. When appropriate, it may be necessary to provide the patient with temporary disability documentation, since GWS symptoms may be so severe to preclude gainful employment. The patient must know that the myalgias reflect the body’s attempts to repair the muscle damage, similar to the soreness experienced the day after resistance weight training, and these aches will eventually subside. Due to the challenges of differentiating between GWS and AI, a higher glucocorticoid dose can be briefly trialed to assess if this increased glucocorticoid exposure improves symptoms, but late-day dosing should be avoided to support recovery of the circadian rhythm. In parallel, the patient should be encouraged to adequately rest, particularly going to sleep early but limiting daytime sleep to short naps.

Several other classes of medications can be trialed to target specific patient symptoms (Table 2). Antidepressants such as fluoxetine, sertraline, and trazodone might help to improve mood, sleep and appetite. A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication to address the musculoskeletal discomfort might be used early in the GWS, with the cyclooxygenase type 2 (COX-2) inhibitor celecoxib (100–200 mg once or twice daily) preferred when several weeks of daily treatment is needed, generally not more than 3 months. With anorexia and reduced food intake, adequate protein intake is necessary to allow muscle recovery. Egg whites, nuts, and lean meats are nutritionally dense and generally easy to tolerate despite poor appetite.

Table 2 Pharmacotherapy and Ancillary Treatment Options for GWS Symptoms

Following surgical remission, the duration of glucocorticoid taper can vary from 6 to 12 months or more, depending on age, severity of disease, and duration of disease [45, 46]. Monitoring for HPA axis recovery involves both clinical and biochemical assessments. Since the HPA axis is likely to remain suppressed with prolonged supraphysiologic glucocorticoid replacement, the first goal is to shift from all-day dosing to a circadian schedule as soon as possible, such as hydrocortisone 20 mg on rising and 10 mg in the early afternoon by 2–6 weeks after surgery. The advantages of hydrocortisone include rapid absorption for symptom mitigation, the ability to measure serum cortisol as a measure of drug exposure when helpful, and the relatively short half-life [47], which ensures a glucocorticoid-free period in the early morning when it is most critical to avoid prolonged HPA axis suppression and to enhance recovery. The second goal, which should not be attempted until GWS symptoms – particularly the anorexia and myalgias – are considerably improved, is to limit replacement to a single morning dose.

Biochemical assessment should begin once patients are taking a physiologic dose of glucocorticoid replacement (total daily dose of hydrocortisone 15 to 20 mg per day) and clinically feel well enough to begin the final stage to discontinuation of glucocorticoid replacement (Fig. 2). Biochemical evaluation begins with basal testing, and dynamic assessment of adrenal function might be necessary to confirm completion of recovery. For basal testing, patients should not take their afternoon hydrocortisone dose (if prescribed) the day before testing and then have a blood draw by 0830 prior to the morning hydrocortisone dose on the day of testing. While a serum cortisol alone is adequate to taper hydrocortisone, a simultaneous plasma ACTH assists in gauging the state of HPA axis recovery. Often the ACTH and cortisol rise gradually in parallel, but sometimes the ACTH rises above the normal range despite a low cortisol, which indicates recovery of the hypothalamus (CRH neuron) and pituitary corticotrophs in advance of adrenal function. Serum DHEAS can remain suppressed for months to years after cortisol normalization, and a low DHEAS does not indicate continued HPA axis suppression. A rapid rise in DHEAS, in contrast, is concerning for disease recurrence, but a slow drift to a measurable amount in parallel with the cortisol rise is consistent with HPA axis recovery. Periodic assessment of electrolytes is prudent to screen for hyponatremia and hypo- or hyperkalemia as medications are changed, particularly diuretics. Hypercalcemia that is parathyroid-hormone independent might be observed during the recovery phase, probably related to the rise in cytokines that accompany resolution of hypercortisolemia[48, 49].

Fig. 2

figure 2

Glucocorticoid withdrawal algorithm. TDD, total daily dose

Basal testing is performed at 4- to 6-week intervals during glucocorticoid replacement. A rule of thumb is that the AM cortisol in µg/dL plus the morning dose of hydrocortisone in milligrams should sum to 15–20. Thus, once endogenous cortisol production is measurable, the hydrocortisone dose should be not more than 20 mg on arising. Once the AM cortisol rises to near 5 and then 10 µg/dL, the AM hydrocortisone dose is dropped to 15 and then 10 mg, respectively. Once the AM cortisol is 12–14 µg/dL, recovery is essentially complete, and the morning hydrocortisone dose is dropped to 5 mg for 4–6 weeks and then stopped or held for dynamic testing (Fig. 2). A clinical pearl related to HPA axis recovery is that patients who state that they are finally feeling better and getting over the GWS usually have started to make some endogenous cortisol, yet not enough to stop glucocorticoid tapering. Nevertheless, a smidgeon of endogenous cortisol production with the waning of GWS symptoms is a harbinger that HPA axis recovery is imminent. If basal testing is equivocal, dynamic testing might be necessary. The gold standard testing for central AI is the insulin tolerance test, which is rarely used, and metyrapone testing might be employed once the basal cortisol is > 10 µg/dL. Although designed to test for primary adrenal insufficiency, the cosyntropin stimulation test is often employed in this setting due to greater availability, simplicity, and safety than insulin or metyrapone testing. The duration of full HPA axis recovery can be highly variable depending on the individual and postoperative glucocorticoid dosing[50].

GWS During Medical Management of CS

Patients who are not surgical candidates or do not have successful remission of CS following surgery may be offered medical treatment or BLA. After BLA, the GWS will ensue without eventual recovery of the HPA axis, so glucocorticoids are tapered until a chronic physiologic replacement dose is reached as described previously. With medical management, patients might also experience GWS, particularly at the onset of treatment. Therefore, patients must be counseled that the typical symptoms of fatigue, myalgias, and anorexia are not only possible but indeed expected, rather than “side effects” of the medication, with two caveats. First, as described for glucocorticoid replacement following surgical remission, the endocrinologist must distinguish GWS from AI due to over-treatment of CS. The same parameters of vomiting, hypotension, and hypoglycemia favor inadequate cortisol exposure and the need for dose reduction or treatment pause and/or supplementation with a potent glucocorticoid such as dexamethasone to reverse an acute event. Second, known adverse effects of the specific drug in use should be considered and excluded. The quandary of distinguishing GWS from over-treatment raises an important principle of medical management: under-dose initially and gauge primarily the severity of GWS symptoms in the first several days. The initial goal of medical therapy is not to rapidly achieve normal cortisol milieu, but rather to “dial in” just enough inhibition of cortisol production or receptor antagonism to precipitate mild to moderate GWS symptoms. Once GWS symptoms appear and/or a typical dose of the medication is achieved, further assessments, including glucose, serum cortisol and/or UFC (except when treated with mifepristone), clinical appearance, and body weight are conducted while the dose is maintained constant until GWS symptoms begin to dissipate. If the patient is not experiencing adequate clinical and/or biochemical benefit from the medication in the absence of GWS symptoms, the dose is gradually raised incrementally. This iterative process might require periodic dose reduction or perhaps even temporarily discontinuing the medication if the patient’s daily living activities are affected at any point in the process.

For several medications, a block-and-replacement strategy is an option[3], particularly for very compliant patients for whom a priority is placed on avoidance of over-treatment. This strategy resembles thionamide-plus-levothyroxine therapy for the treatment of Graves disease. The patient is given both a generous dose of medication to completely block endogenous glucocorticoid production, plus simultaneous exogenous glucocorticoid therapy, titrated to replacement dose or greater. This approach allows for greater control over glucocorticoid exposure and low risk of AI, as long as the patient always takes both medications each day. Long-acting pasireotide, for example, would not be an appropriate drug for the block-and-replace strategy. Based on the drug mechanism of action, this block-and-replace strategy is feasible with ketoconazole or levoketoconazole, the 11β-hydroxylase inhibitors osilodrostat and metyrapone, and the adrenolytic agent mitotane (the latter three are off-label uses). Alternatively, the patient might be given a double replacement dose of glucocorticoid to take only if symptoms concerning for over-treatment occur, and the medical therapy for hypercortisolemia is then interrupted until the patient communicates with the endocrinologist.

Treatment monitoring with medical management includes biochemical and symptom assessment. For all medications other than mifepristone, normalization of 24-hour UFC is the minimal goal [2]. Basal morning cortisol and late-night salivary cortisol may be more challenging to interpret in the setting of diurnal rhythm loss characteristic of CS. Because mifepristone blocks glucocorticoid receptors, ACTH and cortisol increase with treatment for most forms of CS; dose titration therefore relies on assessment of clinical features, glycemia, body weight, and other metabolic parameters [2]. For occult tumors, periodic imaging to screen for a surgical target and/or tumor regrowth is prudent, and a pause in treatment for repeat surgery might be indicated.

The End Game: Comprehensive Recovery for the Patient with CS

Besides navigating the GWS and shepherding recovery of the HPA axis, recovery from co-morbidities of CS must be addressed to the extent possible. Hypertension, hyperglycemia, hypokalemia, and dyslipidemia often improve substantially but do not always resolve. Insomnia, skin thinning and bruising, and risk of thrombosis also generally resolve, and associated treatments might be discontinued. Although there is usually an improvement in bone density and decreased fracture risk following correction of CS, anabolic and/or anti-resorptive therapies may be warranted in some patients. The deformities of vertebral compression fractures may be permanent, and some authors have recommended the use of vertebroplasty for symptom relief[51]. Violaceous striae and chronic skin tears might heal with hyperpigmentation, leaving “the scars of Cushing’s,” which can persist for a lifetime. These milestones or minor victories can be used as evidence of healing and encouragement for the patient during the dark days of the GWS, and these changes herald further improvements. Fat redistribution and significant weight loss take some weeks to manifest and usually follow next.

The myopathy from CS is an example of a co-morbidity that rarely improves without targeted treatment, and the German Cushing’s Registry has provided evidence for chronic muscle dysfunction following cure of CS[52]. Recent data indicate that a low IGF-1 after curative surgery is associated with long-term myopathy [53]. This persistent myopathy is a common source of chronic fatigue following HPA axis recovery, which is unresponsive to glucocorticoids. For these reasons, an important ancillary modality is physical therapy, and an ideal time to initiate this treatment is at the first signs of HPA axis recovery when the GWS symptoms have subsided. A complete evaluation from an experienced physical therapist should focus on core and proximal muscle strength, balance, and other factors that limit function. Exercises targeting these factors (stand on one foot, sit-to-stand, straight-arm raises with 1- to 5-pound weights) rather than traditional gym exercises (arm curls, bench press, treadmill) are necessary to restore functional status and avoid frustration and injury when the patient is not yet prepared for the latter stages of recovery. Professional supervision of this initial phase is a critical component of the recovery process, and failure to attend to musculoskeletal rehabilitation – as would be routine following survival of a critical illness – risks long-term morbidities from a curable disease.

Patients with CS often complain of cognitive defects, which usually improve but may not completely recover following treatment[54, 55]. Glucocorticoids are toxic to the hippocampus, and both rats treated with high-dose corticosterone and patients with CD experience reductions in hippocampal volume, which does not completely return to normal even with correction of hypercortisolemia[56, 57]. Because the hippocampus is an important brain region for memory, the main complaint is impaired formation of new memories and recall of recent events. When significant cognitive dysfunction persists, a formal neuropsychologic testing session is prudent, both to screen for additional sources of memory loss (degenerative brain diseases) and to identify aspects that might be amenable to functional management approaches. Cognitive therapy can be effective for mental health and overall disease coping strategies as well.

Finally, for patients undergoing transsphenoidal surgery for CD, complications associated with pituitary surgeries in general should also be considered. Anterior pituitary hormone axes should be assessed biochemically and symptomatically for hypothyroidism and hypogonadism, as hypopituitarism is an independent predictor of decreased quality of life after surgical cure [58]. Hypopituitarism can not only complicate the assessment of GWS with overlapping symptoms such as fatigue, but treatment of hypopituitarism can also be important for GWS recovery. Prior to initiating physical therapy, testosterone replacement in male patients with hypogonadism should be optimized. Hypothyroidism can contribute to hyponatremia and can also slow the metabolism of glucocorticoids. Therefore, optimizing the treatment of hypothyroidism and hypogonadism prior to completing glucocorticoid taper is prudent. Growth hormone deficiency may also be evaluated in symptomatic patients in the setting of other anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies, although formal evaluation is best delayed for at least 6–12 months when HPA axis recovery has occurred or at least the glucocorticoid dose is reduced to a physiologic range [2].

Summary and Final Thoughts

After a diagnosis of CS has been well established, a multidisciplinary team of endocrinologists and surgeons must design the best treatment strategy for the patient. Expectations and possible adverse side effects of surgery or pharmacotherapy should be reviewed with the patient. The GWS is a very difficult concept for patients to understand. It seems inconceivable to them that they could possibly feel worse (and that this is a good omen) six weeks after resolution of their hypercortisolism than they do pre-operatively; however, there are no studies that address whether comprehensive pre-operative patient education regarding GWS has any impact on the patient’s post-operative perception and outcome after successful surgery. An addiction metaphor is sometimes helpful: the patient’s body and brain has become addicted to steroids (cortisol) and after steroids are abruptly reduced, their body and brain are dysphoric — much like removal of any other addictive substance (e.g., opioids, alcohol, nicotine). The patient and their care team need to know that this treatment odyssey will be a marathon, not a sprint. It may take as long as 12–18 months for patients to have full HPA axis recovery, regression of GWS, and, most importantly, resolution of the devastating effects of chronic excessive glucocorticoid exposure.

Conclusions

GWS following surgery or during medical treatment of CS can be challenging to manage. There are currently no standard guidelines for management of GWS, but various available medical and ancillary therapies are discussed here. Studies are needed to better understand the pathophysiology of GWS to guide more targeted treatments. There may be yet unrecognized steroids produced by the adrenal glands, the withdrawal of which contributes to GWS symptoms[59]. Future observational and interventional studies would be beneficial for identifying optimal management options.

References

  1. Carroll TB, Findling JW (2010) The diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 11:147–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-010-9143-3

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fleseriu M, Auchus R, Bancos I et al (2021) Consensus on diagnosis and management of Cushing’s disease: a guideline update. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 9:847–875. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(21)00235-7

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nieman LK, Biller BMK, Findling JW et al (2015) Treatment of Cushing’s Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100:2807–2831. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-1818

    CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  4. Biller BMK, Grossman AB, Stewart PM et al (2008) Treatment of adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing’s syndrome: a consensus statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:2454–2462. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2007-2734

    CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  5. Geer EB, Shafiq I, Gordon MB et al (2017) BIOCHEMICAL CONTROL DURING LONG-TERM FOLLOW-UP OF 230 ADULT PATIENTS WITH CUSHING DISEASE: A MULTICENTER RETROSPECTIVE STUDY. Endocr Pract 23:962–970. https://doi.org/10.4158/EP171787.OR

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Colao A, Petersenn S, Newell-Price J et al (2012) A 12-Month Phase 3 Study of Pasireotide in Cushing’s Disease. N Engl J Med 366:914–924. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1105743

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Lacroix A, Gu F, Gallardo W et al (2018) Efficacy and safety of once-monthly pasireotide in Cushing’s disease: a 12 month clinical trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 6:17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30326-1

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Pivonello R, De Martino MC, Cappabianca P et al (2009) The medical treatment of Cushing’s disease: effectiveness of chronic treatment with the dopamine agonist cabergoline in patients unsuccessfully treated by surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:223–230. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2008-1533

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Pivonello R, Fleseriu M, Newell-Price J et al (2020) Efficacy and safety of osilodrostat in patients with Cushing’s disease (LINC 3): a multicentre phase III study with a double-blind, randomised withdrawal phase. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 8:748–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30240-0

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Ceccato F, Zilio M, Barbot M et al (2018) Metyrapone treatment in Cushing’s syndrome: a real-life study. Endocrine 62:701–711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-018-1675-4

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Fleseriu M, Pivonello R, Elenkova A et al (2019) Efficacy and safety of levoketoconazole in the treatment of endogenous Cushing’s syndrome (SONICS): a phase 3, multicentre, open-label, single-arm trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 7:855–865. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30313-4

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Castinetti F, Guignat L, Giraud P et al (2014) Ketoconazole in Cushing’s disease: is it worth a try? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:1623–1630. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-3628

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Fleseriu M, Biller BMK, Findling JW et al (2012) Mifepristone, a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, produces clinical and metabolic benefits in patients with Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:2039–2049. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-3350

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  14. Reincke M, Albani A, Assie G et al (2021) Corticotroph tumor progression after bilateral adrenalectomy (Nelson’s syndrome): systematic review and expert consensus recommendations. Eur J Endocrinol 184:P1–P16. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-20-1088

    CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  15. Lindsay JR, Oldfield EH, Stratakis CA, Nieman LK (2011) The Postoperative Basal Cortisol and CRH Tests for Prediction of Long-Term Remission from Cushing’s Disease after Transsphenoidal Surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:2057–2064. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-0456

    CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  16. Hameed N, Yedinak CG, Brzana J et al (2013) Remission rate after transsphenoidal surgery in patients with pathologically confirmed Cushing’s disease, the role of cortisol, ACTH assessment and immediate reoperation: a large single center experience. Pituitary 16:452–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11102-012-0455-z

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  17. Ramm-Pettersen J, Halvorsen H, Evang JA et al (2015) Low immediate postoperative serum-cortisol nadir predicts the short-term, but not long-term, remission after pituitary surgery for Cushing’s disease. BMC Endocr Disord 15:62. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12902-015-0055-9

    CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  18. Ironside N, Chatain G, Asuzu D et al (2018) Earlier post-operative hypocortisolemia may predict durable remission from Cushing’s disease. Eur J Endocrinol 178:255–263. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-17-0873

    CAS Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  19. Hochberg Z, Pacak K, Chrousos GP (2003) Endocrine Withdrawal Syndromes. Endocr Rev 24:523–538. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2001-0014

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  20. Dixon RB, Christy NP (1980) On the various forms of corticosteroid withdrawal syndrome. Am J Med 68:224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(80)90358-7

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  21. AMATRUDA TT ND JR (1965) Certain Endocrine and Metabolic Facets of the Steroid Withdrawal Syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 25:1207–1217. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-25-9-1207

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  22. Dorn LD, Burgess ES, Friedman TC et al (1997) The Longitudinal Course of Psychopathology in Cushing’s Syndrome after Correction of Hypercortisolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:912–919. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.82.3.3834

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  23. Chrousos GP, Gold PW (1992) The Concepts of Stress and Stress System Disorders: Overview of Physical and Behavioral Homeostasis. JAMA 267:1244–1252. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03480090092034

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  24. Kling MA, Roy A, Doran AR et al (1991) Cerebrospinal fluid immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone and adrenocorticotropin secretion in Cushing’s disease and major depression: potential clinical implications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 72:260–271. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-72-2-260

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  25. Gomez MT, Magiakou MA, Mastorakos G, Chrousos GP (1993) The pituitary corticotroph is not the rate limiting step in the postoperative recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with Cushing syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:173–177. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.77.1.8392083

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  26. Young EA, Kwak SP, Kottak J (1995) Negative feedback regulation following administration of chronic exogenous corticosterone. J Neuroendocrinol 7:37–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2826.1995.tb00665.x

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  27. Papanicolaou DA, Tsigos C, Oldfield EH, Chrousos GP (1996) Acute glucocorticoid deficiency is associated with plasma elevations of interleukin-6: does the latter participate in the symptomatology of the steroid withdrawal syndrome and adrenal insufficiency? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:2303–2306. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.81.6.8964868

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  28. Ciric I, Zhao J-C, Du H et al (2012) Transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing disease: experience with 136 patients. Neurosurgery 70:70–80 discussion 80–81. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0b013e31822dda2c

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  29. Alexandraki KI, Kaltsas GA, Isidori AM et al (2013) Long-term remission and recurrence rates in Cushing’s disease: predictive factors in a single-centre study. Eur J Endocrinol 168:639–648. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-12-0921

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  30. Capatina C, Hinojosa-Amaya JM, Poiana C, Fleseriu M (2020) Management of patients with persistent or recurrent Cushing’s disease after initial pituitary surgery. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 15:321–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/17446651.2020.1802243

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  31. Stroud A, Dhaliwal P, Alvarado R et al (2020) Outcomes of pituitary surgery for Cushing’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pituitary 23:595–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11102-020-01066-8

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  32. Acree R, Miller CM, Abel BS et al (2021) Patient and Provider Perspectives on Postsurgical Recovery of Cushing Syndrome. J Endocr Soc 5:bvab109. https://doi.org/10.1210/jendso/bvab109

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  33. AbdelMannan D, Selman WR, Arafah BM (2010) Peri-operative management of Cushing’s disease. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 11:127–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-010-9140-6

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  34. Costenaro F, Rodrigues TC, Rollin GAF et al (2014) Evaluation of Cushing’s disease remission after transsphenoidal surgery based on early serum cortisol dynamics. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 80:411–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.12300

    CAS Article Google Scholar

  35. Varlamov EV, Vila G, Fleseriu M (2022) Perioperative Management of a Patient With Cushing Disease. J Endocr Soc 6:bvac010. https://doi.org/10.1210/jendso/bvac010

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  36. El Asmar N, Rajpal A, Selman WR, Arafah BM (2018) The Value of Perioperative Levels of ACTH, DHEA, and DHEA-S and Tumor Size in Predicting Recurrence of Cushing Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 103:477–485. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-01797

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  37. DeLozier OM, Dream SY, Findling JW et al (2022) Selective Glucocorticoid Replacement Following Unilateral Adrenalectomy for Hypercortisolism and Primary Aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 107:e538–e547. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgab698

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  38. Stuijver DJF, van Zaane B, Feelders RA et al (2011) Incidence of venous thromboembolism in patients with Cushing’s syndrome: a multicenter cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:3525–3532. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-1661

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  39. van der Pas R, Leebeek FWG, Hofland LJ et al (2013) Hypercoagulability in Cushing’s syndrome: prevalence, pathogenesis and treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 78:481–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.12094

    CAS Article Google Scholar

  40. van der Pas R, de Bruin C, Leebeek FWG et al (2012) The hypercoagulable state in Cushing’s disease is associated with increased levels of procoagulant factors and impaired fibrinolysis, but is not reversible after short-term biochemical remission induced by medical therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:1303–1310. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-2753

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  41. Kristof RA, Rother M, Neuloh G, Klingmüller D (2009) Incidence, clinical manifestations, and course of water and electrolyte metabolism disturbances following transsphenoidal pituitary adenoma surgery: a prospective observational study: Clinical article. J Neurosurg 111:555–562. https://doi.org/10.3171/2008.9.JNS08191

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  42. Yuen KCJ, Ajmal A, Correa R, Little AS (2019) Sodium Perturbations After Pituitary Surgery. Neurosurg Clin 30:515–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2019.05.011

    Article Google Scholar

  43. Ghiam MK, Chyou DE, Dable CL et al (2021) 30-Day Readmissions and Coordination of Care Following Endoscopic Transsphenoidal Pituitary Surgery: Experience with 409 Patients. J Neurol Surg Part B Skull Base. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1729980

    Article Google Scholar

  44. Bohl MA, Ahmad S, Jahnke H et al (2016) Delayed Hyponatremia Is the Most Common Cause of 30-Day Unplanned Readmission After Transsphenoidal Surgery for Pituitary Tumors. Neurosurgery 78:84–90. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000001003

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  45. Doherty GM, Nieman LK, Cutler GB et al (1990) Time to recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis after curative resection of adrenal tumors in patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Surgery 108:1085–1090

    CAS PubMed Google Scholar

  46. Sippel RS, Elaraj DM, Kebebew E et al (2008) Waiting for change: Symptom resolution after adrenalectomy for Cushing’s syndrome. Surgery 144:1054–1061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2008.08.024

    Article PubMed Google Scholar

  47. Derendorf H, Möllmann H, Barth J et al (1991) Pharmacokinetics and Oral Bioavailability of Hydrocortisone. J Clin Pharmacol 31:473–476. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1552-4604.1991.tb01906.x

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  48. Suzuki K, Nonaka K, Ichihara K et al (1986) Hypercalcemia in Glucocorticoid Withdrawal. Endocrinol Jpn 33:203–209. https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj1954.33.203

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  49. Oyama Y, Iwafuchi Y, Narita I (2021) A case of hypercalcemia because of adrenal insufficiency induced by glucocorticoid withdrawal in a patient undergoing hemodialysis. CEN Case Rep. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13730-021-00619-5

    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

  50. Berr CM, Di Dalmazi G, Osswald A et al (2015) Time to Recovery of Adrenal Function After Curative Surgery for Cushing’s Syndrome Depends on Etiology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100:1300–1308. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2014-3632

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  51. Gad HEM, Ismail AM (2020) The role of vertebroplasty in steroid-induced vertebral osteoporotic fractures. Egypt Spine J 35:41–52. https://doi.org/10.21608/esj.2020.34844.1140

    Article Google Scholar

  52. Vogel F, Braun LT, Rubinstein G et al (2020) Persisting Muscle Dysfunction in Cushing’s Syndrome Despite Biochemical Remission. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 105:e4490–e4498. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgaa625

    Article PubMed Central Google Scholar

  53. Vogel F, Braun L, Rubinstein G et al (2021) Patients with low IGF-I after curative surgery for Cushing’s syndrome have an adverse long-term outcome of hypercortisolism-induced myopathy. Eur J Endocrinol 184:813–821. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-20-1285

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  54. Andela CD, van Haalen FM, Ragnarsson O et al (2015) MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Cushing’s syndrome causes irreversible effects on the human brain: a systematic review of structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Eur J Endocrinol 173:R1–R14. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-14-1101

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  55. Bride MM, Crespo I, Webb SM, Valassi E (2021) Quality of life in Cushing’s syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 35:101505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2021.101505

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  56. Starkman MN, Gebarski SS, Berent S, Schteingart DE (1992) Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 32:756–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(92)90079-F

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  57. McEwen BS, Gould EA, Sakai RR (1992) The Vulnerability of the Hippocampus to Protective and Destructive Effects of Glucocorticoids in Relation to Stress. Br J Psychiatry 160:18–23. https://doi.org/10.1192/S0007125000296645

    Article Google Scholar

  58. van Aken MO, Pereira AM, Biermasz NR et al (2005) Quality of Life in Patients after Long-Term Biochemical Cure of Cushing’s Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:3279–3286. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1375

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

  59. Zorumski CF, Paul SM, Izumi Y et al (2013) Neurosteroids, stress and depression: potential therapeutic opportunities. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37:109–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.10.005

    CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Recordati Rare Diseases for their support with literature review and figure preparation to the authors’ designs.

Funding

XH is supported by grant T32DK07245 from the National Institutes of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Xin He & Richard J. Auchus

  2. Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Molecular Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA

    James W. Findling

  3. Endocrinology Center and Clinics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA

    James W. Findling

  4. Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Richard J. Auchus

  5. Lieutenant Colonel Charles S. Kettles Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Richard J. Auchus

Contributions

All authors contributed to the manuscript conception, design, and content. All authors read, edited, and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Richard J. Auchus.

Ethics declarations

Financial Interests

Dr. Auchus has received research support from Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Corcept Therapeutics, Spruce Biosciences, and Neurocrine Biosciences and has served as a consultant for Corcept Therapeutics, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Quest Diagnostics, Adrenas Therapeutics, Crinetics Pharmaceuticals, PhaseBio Pharmaceuticals, OMass Therapeutics, Recordati Rare Diseases, Strongbridge Biopharma, and H Lundbeck A/S. Dr. Findling has received research support from Novartis Pharmaceuticals and has served as a consultant for Corcept Therapeutics and Recordati Rare Diseases.

Human Subjects and Animals

No human subjects or animals were used to collect data for this manuscript.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

About this article

Cite this article

He, X., Findling, J.W. & Auchus, R.J. Glucocorticoid Withdrawal Syndrome following treatment of endogenous Cushing Syndrome. Pituitary (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11102-022-01218-y

Download citation

From https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11102-022-01218-y

Filed under: Cushing's | Tagged: , , , , | Leave a comment »

Novel Application of Amniotic Membrane Saves Adrenal Tissue in Patients Undergoing Adrenal Surgery

Posted on April 18, 2022 by MaryO

The Carling Adrenal Center, a worldwide destination for the surgical treatment of adrenal tumors, becomes the first center to offer the use of amniotic membrane during adrenal surgery which saves functional adrenal tissue in patients undergoing adrenal surgery. This novel technique enables more patients to have a partial adrenalectomy thereby preserving some normal adrenal physiology, potentially eliminating life-long adrenal hormone replacement.

Preliminary clinical data from the Carling Adrenal Center suggest that the use of a human amniotic membrane allograph on the adrenal gland remnant following partial adrenal surgery leads to faster recovery of normal adrenal gland function. Rather than removing the entire adrenal gland—which has been standard of care for decades—a portion of the adrenal gland is able to be salvaged with amniotic membrane placed upon the remnant as a biologic covering.

Preliminary clinical data from the Carling Adrenal Center suggest that the use of a human amniotic membrane allograph on the adrenal gland remnant following partial adrenal surgery leads to faster recovery of normal adrenal gland function. Rather than removing the entire adrenal gland—which has been standard of care for decades—a portion of the adrenal gland is able to be salvaged with amniotic membrane placed upon the remnant as a biologic covering. The preliminary data from an ongoing clinical trial shows this technique translates into fewer patients needing steroid hormone replacement following adrenal surgery, and if they do, it is for a significantly shorter period of time.

“Sometimes it is possible, and preferable, to remove the adrenal tumor without removing the entire adrenal gland. This is called partial adrenal surgery and our study shows this technique is more successful when amniotic membrane is used,” said Dr. Carling. He further stresses that “removing only part of the adrenal gland is a more advanced operation and is typically only performed by expert adrenal surgeons. The goal is to leave some normal adrenal tissue so that the patient can avoid adrenal insufficiency which requires a daily dose of several adrenal hormones and steroids. Partial adrenal surgery is especially beneficial for patients with pheochromocytoma, as well as Conn’s and Cushing’s syndrome. Avoiding daily steroids is life-changing for these patients so this is a major breakthrough.”

So how does it work? The increased viability of the adrenal gland remnant is presumed to be related to the release of growth factors known to be present in amniotic tissue which is in direct contact with the adrenal gland remnant as a covering. The results are improved rates of viable adrenal cortical tissues with faster regeneration and recovery to normal endocrine physiology by the adrenal cortical cells.

These findings come during Adrenal Disease Awareness Month. Adrenal gland diseases cause many debilitating symptoms like chronic headaches, anxiety, depression, fatigue, brain fog, memory loss, dangerously high blood pressure, heart arrythmia, weight gain, tremors, and more, yet they are often misdiagnosed or improperly treated. Since many doctors are inexperienced in the workup of adrenal hormone problems and only see a handful of adrenal tumors during their careers, it is important for patients to know about the symptoms of adrenal tumor disease and request their doctor measure adrenal hormones.

Adrenal.com is the leading resource for adrenal gland function, tumors and cancers, and an award-winning resource for adrenal gland surgery. The diagnosis and surgical treatment of all types of adrenal tumor types are discussed. Adrenal.com is edited by Dr. Tobias Carling who has performed more adrenal surgery than any other surgeon and has published some of the most important scientific studies of adrenal disease and adrenal surgery including the understanding of the pathogenesis of pheochromocytoma and adrenal tumors causing Conn’s and Cushing’s syndrome.

Established by Dr. Tobias Carling in 2020, the Carling Adrenal Center located at the Hospital for Endocrine Surgery in Tampa FL, is the highest volume adrenal surgical center in the world. The Center now averages nearly 20 adrenal tumor patients every week. Dr Carling was the Director of Endocrine Surgery at Yale University prior to opening the Center in Tampa. At the new Hospital for Endocrine Surgery, Dr Carling joins the Norman Parathyroid Center, the Clayman Thyroid Center and the Scarless Thyroid Surgery Center as the highest volume endocrine surgery center in the world.

About the Carling Adrenal Center: Founded by Dr. Tobias Carling, one of the world’s leading experts in adrenal gland surgery, the Carling Adrenal Center is a worldwide destination for the surgical treatment of adrenal tumors. Dr. Carling spent nearly 20 years at Yale University, including 7 as the Chief of Endocrine Surgery before leaving in 2020 to open to Carling Adrenal Center, which performs more adrenal operations than any other hospital in the world. (813) 972-0000. More about partial adrenalectomy for adrenal tumors can be found at the Center’s website www.adrenal.com.

From https://www.streetinsider.com/PRNewswire/Novel+application+of+amniotic+membrane+saves+adrenal+tissue+in+patients+undergoing+adrenal+surgery/19915274.html

Filed under: adrenal, Cushing's, Treatments | Tagged: , , | Leave a comment »

Pediatric Adrenal Insufficiency: Challenges and Solutions

Posted on January 14, 2022 by MaryO

Authors Nisticò D , Bossini B, Benvenuto S, Pellegrin MC, Tornese G

Received 29 October 2021

Accepted for publication 28 December 2021

Published 11 January 2022 Volume 2022:18 Pages 47—60

DOI https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S294065

Checked for plagiarism Yes

Review by Single anonymous peer review

Peer reviewer comments 2

Editor who approved publication: Professor Garry Walsh

Download Article [PDF] 

Daniela Nisticò,1 Benedetta Bossini,1 Simone Benvenuto,1 Maria Chiara Pellegrin,1 Gianluca Tornese2

1University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy; 2Department of Pediatrics, Institute for Maternal and Child Health IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, Trieste, Italy

Correspondence: Gianluca Tornese
Department of Pediatrics, Institute for Maternal and Child Health IRCCS Burlo Garofolo, Via dell’Istria 65/1, Trieste, 34137, Italy
Tel +39 040 3785470
Email gianluca.tornese@burlo.trieste.it

Abstract: Adrenal insufficiency is an insidious diagnosis that can be initially misdiagnosed as other life-threatening endocrine conditions, as well as sepsis, metabolic disorders, or cardiovascular disease. In newborns, cortisol deficiency causes delayed bile acid synthesis and transport maturation, determining prolonged cholestatic jaundice. Subclinical adrenal insufficiency is a particular challenge for a pediatric endocrinologist, representing the preclinical stage of acute adrenal insufficiency. Although often included in the extensive work-up of an unwell child, a single cortisol value is usually difficult to interpret; therefore, in most cases, a dynamic test is required for diagnosis to assess the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Stimulation tests using corticotropin analogs are recommended as first-line for diagnosis. All patients with adrenal insufficiency need long-term glucocorticoid replacement therapy, and oral hydrocortisone is the first-choice replacement treatment in pediatric. However, children that experience low cortisol concentrations and symptoms of cortisol insufficiency can take advantage using a modified release hydrocortisone formulation. The acute adrenal crisis is a life-threatening condition in all ages, treatment is effective if administered promptly, and it must not be delayed for any reason.

Keywords: adrenal gland, primary adrenal insufficiency, central adrenal insufficiency, Addison disease, children, adrenal crisis, hydrocortisone

Introduction

Primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) is a condition resulting from impaired steroid synthesis, adrenal destruction, or abnormal gland development affecting the adrenal cortex.1 Acquired primary adrenal insufficiency is termed Addison disease. Central adrenal insufficiency (CAI) is caused by an impaired production or release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). It can originate either from a pituitary disease (secondary adrenal insufficiency) or arise from an impaired release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus (tertiary adrenal insufficiency). An underlying genetic cause should be investigated in every case of adrenal insufficiency (AI) presenting in the neonatal period or first few months of life, although AI is relatively rare at this age (1:5.000–10.000).2

Physiology of the Adrenal Gland

The adrenal cortex consists of three zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis, responsible for aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens synthesis, respectively.3 Aldosterone production is under the control of the renin-angiotensin system, while cortisol is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA).4 This explains why patients affected by CAI only manifest glucocorticoid deficiency while mineralocorticoid function is spared. CRH is secreted from the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus into the hypophyseal-portal venous system in response to light, stress, and other inputs. It binds to a specific cell-surface receptor, the melanocortin 2 receptor, stimulating the release of preformed ACTH and the de novo transcription of the precursor molecule pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). ACTH is derived from the cleavage of POMC by proprotein convertase-1.5–9 ACTH binds to steroidogenic cells of both the zona fasciculata and reticularis, activating adrenal steroidogenesis. It also has a trophic effect on adrenal tissue; therefore, ACTH deficiency determines adrenocortical atrophy and decreases the capacity to secrete glucocorticoids. Circulating cortisol is 75% bound to corticosteroid-binding protein, 15% to albumin, and 10% free. The endogenous production rate is estimated between 6 and 10 mg/m2/day, even though it depends on age, gender, and pubertal development. Glucocorticoids have multiple effects: they regulate immune, circulatory, and renal function, influence growth, development, energy and bone metabolism, and central nervous system activity. Several studies reported higher cortisol plasma concentrations in girls than in boys and younger children.3,4,8

Cortisol secretion follows a circadian and ultradian rhythm according to varying amplitudes of ACTH pulses. Pulses of ACTH and cortisol occur every 30–120 minutes, are highest at about the time of waking, and decline throughout the day, reaching a nadir overnight.3,8,9 This pattern can change in the presence of serious illness, major surgery, and sleep deprivation. During stressful situations, glucocorticoid secretion can increase up to 10-fold to enhance survival through increased cardiac contractility and cardiac output, sensitivity to catecholamines, work capacity of the skeletal muscles, and availability of energy stores.3

The interaction between the hypothalamus and the two endocrine glands is essential to maintain plasma cortisol homeostasis (Figure 1). Cortisol exerts double-negative feedback on the HPA axis. It acts on the hypothalamus and the corticotrophin cells of the anterior pituitary, reducing CRH and ACTH synthesis and release.6 ACTH inhibits its secretion through a feedback effect mediated at the level of the hypothalamus.3 Increased androgen production occurs in the case of cortisol biosynthesis enzymatic deficits.

Figure 1 The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.

Primary Adrenal Insufficiency

PAI affects 10–15 per 100,000 individuals and recognizes different classes of genetic causes (Table 1). Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is the main cause of PAI in the neonatal period, being included among the disorders of steroidogenesis secondary to deficits in enzymes. It has an autosomal recessive transmission.1,10,11 The estimated incidence ranges between 1:10,000 and 1:20,000 births. CAH phenotype depends on disease-causing mutations and residual enzyme activity. 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21OHD) accounts for more than 90% of cases, 21-hydroxylase converts cortisol and aldosterone precursors, respectively 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) to 11-deoxycortisol and progesterone to deoxycortisone. Less frequent forms of CAH include 11 β -hydroxylase deficiency (11BOHD, 8% of cases), 17α-hydroxylase/17–20 lyase deficiency (17OHD), 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency (3BHDS), P450 oxidoreductase deficiency (PORD).12 Steroidogenesis may also be impaired by steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein deficiency, which is involved in cholesterol transport into mitochondria, or P450 cytochrome side-chain cleavage (P450scc) deficiency, that converts cholesterol into pregnenolone.12,13 Of these conditions, 21OHD and 11BOHD only affect adrenal steroidogenesis, whereas the other deficits also impact gonadal steroid production. In classic CAH, enzyme activity can be absent (salt-wasting form) or low (1–2% enzyme activity, simple virilizing form). The salt-wasting form is the most severe and affects 75% of patients with classic 21OHD.1,10,12,14 Non-classic CAH (NCCAH) is more prevalent than the classic form, in which there is 20–50% of residual enzymatic activity. Two-thirds of NCCAH individuals are compound heterozygotes with different CYP21A2 mutations in two different alleles (classic severe mutation plus mild mutation in two different alleles or homozygous with two mild mutations). Notably, 70% of NCCAH patients carry the point mutation Val281Leu.

Table 1 Causes of Primary Adrenal Insufficiency (PAI)

Central Adrenal Insufficiency

CAI incidence is estimated between 150 and 280 per million, and it should be suspected when mineralocorticoid function is preserved. When, rarely, isolated is due to iatrogenic HPA suppression secondary to prolonged glucocorticoid therapy or the removal of an ACTH- or cortisol-producing tumor (Cushing syndrome).15 Defects in POMC,16 characterized by red or auburn-haired children, pale skin (due to melanocyte stimulating hormone [MSH] – deficiency) and hyperphagia later in life, and in transcription factor TPIT,17 which regulates POMC synthesis in corticotrope cells, are the two leading genetic causes of isolated ACTH deficiency (Table 2). Mainly, it occurs as part of complex syndromes in which a combined multiple pituitary hormone deficiency (CMPD) is associated with craniofacial and midline defects, such as Prader-Willi syndrome, CHARGE syndrome, Pallister-Hall syndrome (anatomical pituitary abnormalities), white vanishing matter disease (progressive leukoencephalopathy).5 Individuals with an isolated pituitary deficiency, usually a growth hormone deficiency (GHD), may develop multiple pituitary hormone deficiencies over the years. Therefore, excluding a latent CAI at GHD onset and periodically monitoring of HPA axis is of utmost importance. Notably, cortisol reduction secondary to an increased basal metabolism when starting GHD or thyroxin substitutive therapy may unleash a misdiagnosed CAI. CMPD can be caused by several defective genes, such as GLI1, LHX3, LHX4, SOX2, SOX3, HESX1: in such cases, hypoglycemia or small penis with undescended testes may respectively suggest concomitant GH and gonadotropins deficits.18

Table 2 Causes of Central Adrenal Insufficiency (CAI)

Clinical Manifestations of Adrenal Insufficiency

AI is an insidious diagnosis presenting non-specific symptoms and may be mistaken with other life-threatening endocrine conditions (septic shock unresponsive to inotropes or recurrent sepsis, acute surgical abdomen).1,19 Children can be initially misdiagnosed as having sepsis, metabolic disorders, or cardiovascular disease, highlighting the need to consider adrenal dysfunction as a differential diagnosis for an unwell or deteriorating infant. With age-related items, clinical features depend on the type of AI (primary or central) and could manifest in an acute or chronic setting (Table 3).

Table 3 Features of Isolated Adrenal Insufficiency in Pediatric Age

Clinical signs of PAI are based on the deficiency of both gluco- and mineralocorticoids. Signs due to glucocorticoid deficiency are weakness, anorexia, and weight loss. Hypoglycemia with normal or low insulin levels is frequent and often severe in the pediatric population. Mineralocorticoid deficiency contributes to hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, acidosis, tachycardia, hypotension, and salt craving. The lack of glucocorticoid-negative feedback is responsible for the elevated ACTH levels. The high levels of ACTH and other POMC peptides, including the various forms of MSH, cause melanin hypersecretion, stimulating mucosal and cutaneous hyperpigmentation. Searching for an increased pigmentation may represent an essential diagnostic tool since all the other symptoms of PAI are non-specific. However, hyperpigmentation is variable, dependent on ethnic origin, and more prominent in skin exposed to sun and in extension surface of knees, elbows, and knuckles.15 In autoimmune PAI, vitiligo may be associated with hyperpigmentation.

In the classic CAH simple virilizing form, salt wasting is absent due to the presence of aldosterone production. In males, diagnosis typically occurs between 3 and 4 years of age with pubarche, accelerated growth velocity, and advanced bone age at presentation.1,10,12,14

NCCAH may occur in late childhood with signs of hyperandrogenism (premature pubarche, acne, adult apocrine odor, advanced bone age) or be asymptomatic. In adolescents and adult women, conditions of androgen excess (acne, oligomenorrhea, hirsutism) may underlie an NCCAH.20,21

The clinical presentation of CAI may be more complex when caused by an underlying central nervous system disease or by CMPD. In the case of a pituitary or hypothalamic tumor, patients may present headache, vomiting, visual disturbances, short stature, delayed or precocious puberty. In the case of CMPD, manifestations vary considerably and depend on the number and severity of the associated hormonal deficiencies. In CAI, aldosterone production is spared, which means that serum electrolytes are usually normal. However, cortisol contributes to regulating free water excretion, so patients with CAI are at risk for dilutional hyponatremia, with normal serum potassium levels. Since adrenal androgen secretion is under the control of ACTH, girls with ACTH deficiency may present light pubic hair. Patients with partial and isolated ACTH defects can be “asymptomatic”, and adrenal crisis appears during stress or in case of major illness (high fever, surgery).

The acute adrenal crisis is a life-threatening condition in all ages. Patients present with profound malaise, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, abdominal or flank pain, muscle pain or cramps, and dehydration, which lead to hypotension, shock, and metabolic acidosis. Hyponatremia and hyperkalemia are less common in CAI than in PAI, but possible in acute AI. Severe hypoglycemia causes weakness, pallor, sweatiness, and impaired cognitive function, including confusion, loss of consciousness, and coma. Immediate treatment is required (see below).

Children and adolescents affected by autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency develop a chronic AI, with an insidious onset and slow progress to an acute adrenal crisis over months or even years. Initial symptoms are decreased appetite, anorexia, nausea, abdominal pain, unintentional weight loss, lethargy, headache, weakness, and fatigue, with prominent pain in the joints and muscles. Due to salt loss through the urine and the subsequent reduction in blood volume, blood pressure decreases, and orthostatic hypotension develops together with salt craving. An increased risk of infection in AI patients is reported only in those exposed to glucocorticoids. However, in APECED (Autoimmune Polyendocrinopathy-Candidiasis- Ectodermal-Dystrophy) patients, there is an increased risk of candidiasis and splenic atrophy increases the likelihood for severe infections.

In neonates, AI classically presents with failure to thrive and hypoglycemia, commonly severe and associated with seizures. The condition can be life-threatening and, if misdiagnosed, may result in coma and unexplained neonatal death. In newborns, cortisol deficiency causes delayed bile acid synthesis and transport maturation, determining prolonged cholestatic jaundice with persistently raised serum liver enzymes. The cholestasis can be resolved within ten weeks of correct treatment. StAR deficiency and P450scc cause salt-losing AI with female external genitalia in genetically male neonates.22 In the classic CAH salt-wasting form, the mineralocorticoid deficiency presents with the adrenal crisis at 10–20 days of life. Females show atypical genitalia with signs of virilization (clitoral enlargement, labial fusion, urogenital sinus), whereas males have normal-appearing genitalia, except for subtle signs as scrotal hyperpigmentation and enlarged phallus.1,10,12,14 Neonates with CMPD may display non-specific symptoms including hypoglycemia, lethargy, apnea, poor feeding, jaundice, seizures, hyponatremia without hyperkalemia, temperature and hemodynamic instability, recurrent sepsis, and poor weight gain. A male with hypogonadism may have undescended testes and micropenis. Infants with optic nerve hypoplasia or agenesis of the corpus callosum may present with nystagmus. Furthermore, infants with midline defects may have various neuro-psychological problems or sensorineural deafness.

Genetic Disorders and Other Conditions at Increased Risk for Adrenal Insufficiency

Among the cholesterol biosynthesis disorder, there is the Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome,23 where microcephaly, micrognathia, low-set posteriorly rotated ears, syndactyly of the second and third toes, and atypical genital may, although rarely, combine with AI; this autosomal recessive disorder is due to defective 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase so that elevated 7-dehydrocholesterol is diagnostic. In lysosomal acid lipase A deficiency,24 AI is due to calcification of the adrenal gland as a result of the accumulation of esterified lipids; in infantile form, that is Wolman disease, hepatosplenomegaly with hepatic fibrosis and malabsorption lead to death in the first year of life, if not treated with enzyme replacement therapy such as sebelipase alfa.25

Adrenal development may be impaired in X-linked congenital adrenal hypoplasia (AHC),13,26 a disorder caused by defective nuclear receptor DAX-1, presenting with salt-losing AI in infancy in approximately half of the cases, but also later in childhood or adolescence with two other key features such as hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and impaired spermatogenesis. Two syndromes combine adrenal hypoplasia with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR): in IMAGe syndrome,27 caused by CDKN1C gain-of-function mutations, IUGR and AI present with metaphyseal dysplasia and genitourinary anomalies; MIRAGE syndrome28 is instead characterized by myelodysplasia, infections, genital abnormalities, and enteropathy, as a result of gain-of-function mutations in SAMD9, with elevated mortality rates.

In some other conditions, AI is due to ACTH resistance. Familial Glucocorticoid Deficiency type 1 (FGD1)13,29 and type 2 (FGD2)30 derive from defective ACTH receptor (MC2R) or its accessory protein MRAP, and both present with early glucocorticoid insufficiency (hypoglycemia, prolonged jaundice) and pronounced hyperpigmentation; there is usually an excellent response to cortisol replacement therapy, even though ACTH levels remain elevated.

In Allgrove or Triple-A Syndrome,13,31 defective Aladin protein (an acronym for alacrimia-achalasia-adrenal insufficiency) leads to primary ACTH-resistant adrenal insufficiency with achalasia and absent lacrimation, often combined with neurological dysfunction, either peripheral, central, or autonomic. It is an autosome recessive condition, phenotypically characterized by microcephaly, short stature, and skin hyperpigmentation.32,33

Among metabolic disorders associated with AI, Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Lyase (SGPL1) Deficiency34 is a sphingolipidosis with various features such as steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, primary hypothyroidism, undescended testes, neurological impairment, lymphopenia, ichthyosis; interestingly, in cases where nephrotic syndrome develops before AI, the latter may be masked by glucocorticoid treatment.

Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)35–37 is an X-linked recessive proximal disorder of beta-oxidation due to defective ABCD1, where the accumulation of very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) affects in almost all cases adrenal gland among other tissues. Most patients present with progressive neurological impairment, but in some, AI is the only (approximately 10%) or first manifestation, so that every unexplained AI in boys should receive plasma VLCFA evaluation to diagnose ALD and reduce cerebral involvement through a low VLCFAs diet (Lorenzo’s oil) and allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Early disease-modifying therapies have been developed. Gene therapy adds new functional copies of the ABCD1 gene in hematopoietic stem cells through a lentiviral vector reinfusing the modified cells in the patient’s bloodstream. Recent trials show encouraging results.38

In Zellweger syndrome, caused by mutations in peroxin genes (PEX), peroxisomes are absent, and disease presentation occurs in the neonatal period, with low survival rates after the first year of life. Finally, mitochondrial disorders have been described to occasionally develop AI: Pearson syndrome (sideroblastic anemia, pancreatic dysfunction), MELAS syndrome (encephalopathy with stroke-like episodes), and Kearns-Sayre syndrome (external ophthalmoplegia, heart block, retinal pigmentary changes) belong to this class.39

Autoimmune pathogenesis (Addison disease) accounts for approximately 15% of cases of primary AI in children, in contrast with adolescents and adults where it is the most common mechanism; half of these children present other glands involvement as well. Two syndromes recognize specific combinations: in Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome Type 1 (APS1, or APECED)40 defective autoimmune regulator AIRE causes AI, hypoparathyroidism, hypogonadism, malabsorption, chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis; APS2 usually present later in life (third-fourth decades) with AI, thyroiditis, and type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Antibodies against 21-hydroxylase enzyme are the hallmark of APS.

Apart from a genetic disorder, a strong link between autoimmune conditions and autoimmune primary AI has been established, with more than 50% of patients with the latter also having one or more other autoimmune endocrine disorders; on the other hand, only a few patients with T1DM or autoimmune thyroiditis or Graves’ disease develop AI. As an example, in a study of 629 patients with T1DM, only 11 (1.7%) presented 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies, with three of them having AI.41 Nevertheless, these patients are to be considered at increased risk for a condition that is potentially fatal yet easy to diagnose and treat; that is why it is reasonable to screen for autoimmune AI at least patients with T1DM, significantly if associated with DQ8 HLA combined with DRB*0404 HLA alleles, who have been observed to develop AI in 80% of cases if also 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies positive.42

Regarding immunological disruption, the link with celiac disease is instead well established: celiac patients have an 11-fold increased risk for AI, while in a study, 6 of 76 patients with AI had celiac disease, so that mutual evaluation should be granted in these patients.43,44

Subclinical Adrenal Insufficiency

Subclinical AI is a particularly insidious challenge for a pediatric endocrinologist. It represents the preclinical stage of Addison disease when 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies are already detectable but still absent from evident symptoms. 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies positivity carries a greater risk to develop overt AI in children than in adults: in a study, estimated risk was 100% in children versus 32% in adults on a medium six-year period of follow-up.45 As the adrenal crisis is a potentially lethal condition, it is essential to recognize and adequately manage subclinical AI.

Although asymptomatic by definition, subclinical AI may present with non-specific symptoms such as fatigue, lethargy, gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation), hypotension; physical or psychosocial stresses may sometimes exacerbate these symptoms. When symptoms lack, subclinical AI may be identified thanks to the co-occurrence with other autoimmune endocrinopathies.46

21-hydroxylase autoantibodies titer is considered a marker of autoimmune activity and correlates with disease progression.47 Other reported risk factors for the disease evolution include young age, male sex, hypoparathyroidism or candidiasis coexistence, increased renin activity, or an altered synacthen test with normal baseline cortisol and ACTH.45 ACTH elevation has been reported as the best predictor of progression to the clinical stage in 2 years (94% sensitivity and 78% specificity).48

Management of patients with subclinical AI should include serum cortisol, ACTH, renin measurement, and a synacthen test. If normal, cortisol and ACTH should be repeated in 12–18 months, while synacthen test every two years. After synacthen test results are subnormal, cortisol and ACTH should be assessed every 6–9 months if ACTH remains in range or every six months if ACTH becomes elevated.49 In the latter case, therapy with hydrocortisone should be started.19 This strategy will prevent acute crises and possibly improve the quality of life in patients reporting non-specific symptoms.

Diagnosis

Laboratory evaluation of a stable patient with suspected AI should start with combined early morning (between 6 and 8 AM) serum cortisol and ACTH measurements (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Diagnostic algorithm for adrenal insufficiency.

Although often included in the extensive work-up of an unwell child, a single cortisol value is usually challenging to interpret: circadian cortisol rhythm is highly variable and morning peak is unpredictable; morning cortisol levels in children with diagnosed AI may range up to 706 nmol/L (97th percentile); several factors, such as exogenous estrogens, may alter total serum cortisol values by influencing the free cortisol to cortisol binding globulin or albumin-bound cortisol ratio.7

Significant variability is also observed depending on the specific type of cortisol assay; therefore, it is recommended to check the reference ranges with the laboratory. Mass spectrometry analysis and the new platform methods (Roche Diagnostics Elecsys Cortisol II)50 have more specificity because it detects lower cortisol concentrations than standard immunoassays.15 Low serum cortisol with normal or low ACTH levels is compatible with CAI. In such cases, morning serum cortisol levels below 3 µg/dL (83 nmol/L) best predict AI, while greater than 13 µg/dL (365 nmol/L) values tend to exclude it.51 This is why in most cases, a dynamic test is required for diagnosis and has been introduced to assess the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in case of intermediate values.5

The insulin tolerance test (ITT) is considered the gold standard for CAI diagnosis as hypoglycemia results in an excellent HPA axis activation; moreover, it allows simultaneous growth hormone evaluation in patients with suspected CPHD. Serum cortisol is measured at baseline and 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 minutes after intravenous administration of 0.1 UI/Kg regular insulin; the test is valid if serum glucose is reduced by 50% or below 2.2 mmol/L (40 mg/dL).52 CAI is diagnosed for a <20 µg/dL (550 nmol/L) cortisol value at its peak.15 Hypoglycemic seizures and hypokalemia (due to glucose infusion) are the main risks of this test so that it is contraindicated in case of a history of seizures or cardiovascular disease.

Glucagon stimulation test (GST, 30 µg/Kg up to 1 mg i.m. glucagon with cortisol measurements every 30 min for 180 min) allows both CAI and growth hormone deficiency evaluation as well but is characterized by frequent gastrointestinal side effects and poor specificity.8

Metyrapone is an 11-hydroxylase inhibitor, thereby decreasing cortisol synthesis and removing its negative feedback on ACTH release. Overnight metyrapone test is based on oral administration of 30 mg/Kg metyrapone at midnight, and 11-deoxycortisol measurement on the following morning: in case of CAI, its level will not reach 7 µg/dL (200 nmol/L). This test may, however, induce an adrenal crisis so that it is rarely performed.

Given their safety profile and accuracy, corticotropin analogs such as tetracosactrin (Synacthen®) or cosyntropin (Cortrosyn®) are recommended as first-line stimulation tests. Nevertheless, false-negative results are probable in the case of recent or moderate ACTH deficiency, which would not have induced adrenal atrophy. The standard dose short synacthen test (SDSST) is based on a 250 µg Synacthen vial administration with serum cortisol measurement at baseline and 30 and 60 minutes after. CAI is diagnosed if peak cortisol level is <16 µg/dL (440 nmol/L), or excluded if >39 µg/dL (1076 nmol/L). However, the cut-offs for both the new platform immunoassay and mass spectrometry serum cortisol assays are 13.5 to 14.9 mcg/dL (373 to 412 nmol/L).53 The 250 µg Synacthen dose is considered a supraphysiological stimulus since it is 500 times greater than the minimum ACTH dose reported to induce a maximal cortisol response (500 ng/1.73 m2). The low dose short synacthen test (LDSST) has been introduced as a more sensitive first-line test in children greater than two years.54 The recommended dose is 1 µg55, which is contained in 1 mL of the solution obtained by diluting a 250 µg vial into 250 mL saline. Serum cortisol level is then measured at baseline and after 30 minutes, resulting in diagnose of CAI if <16 µg/dL (440 nmol/L), otherwise ruling it out if >22 µg/dL (660 nmol/L). Using these thresholds, LDSST is more precise than SDSST in children, with an area under the ROC curve of 0.99 (95% CI 0.98–1.00).56 LDSST has not been validated in acutely ill patients, pituitary acute disorders or surgery or radiation therapy, and impaired sleep-wake cycle. Patients with an indeterminate LDSST result should be furtherly studied with ITT or metyrapone test.

Finally, the CRH test is based on 1 µg/Kg human CRH (Ferring®) administration and may differentiate secondary from tertiary AI, but its thresholds are still not precisely defined.57

Once CAI is diagnosed, other pituitary hormones should be assessed (prolactin, IGF1, LH, FSH, fT4, TSH), and an MRI of the pituitary region should be performed to exclude neoplastic or infiltrative processes.

Primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) should be suspected in case of low serum cortisol with elevated ACTH levels. When hypocortisolemia has been confirmed, ACTH levels >66 pmol/L or greater than twice the upper limit best predict PAI. Nevertheless, a confirmatory dynamic test is always recommended for diagnosis.19 Given the comparable accuracy between standard and low dose SST reported in these patients, SDSST is recommended as the most feasible test.58 Moreover, suspected PAI cases should receive plasma renin activity or direct renin and aldosterone assessment to evaluate mineralocorticoid deficiency.

Etiologic work-up of confirmed PAI should start from 21-hydroxylase antibodies assessment: if positive, differential diagnosis will include Addison disease and APS1 or APS2. Adrenal autoantibody negative patients should instead be screened for CAH by measuring 17-hydroxyprogesterone, ALD (if young male) by assessing VLCFA, and tuberculosis if endemic; adrenal glands imaging will complete the work-up in order to exclude infection, hemorrhage, or tumor.6

While universal newborn screening is already implemented for CAH in many countries, allowing a timely replacement therapy, basal salivary cortisol, and salivary cortisone measurements could improve CAI screening in the future: this technique is simple, cost-effective, and independent of binding proteins.15

Treatment

All patients with adrenal insufficiency need long-term glucocorticoid replacement therapy. Individuals with PAI also require mineralocorticoids replacement, together with salt intake as required (Table 4). Otherwise, guidelines do not recommend androgen replacement.5,9,19

Table 4 Management of Adrenal Insufficiency (AI)

Oral hydrocortisone is the first-choice replacement treatment in children due to its short half-life, rapid peak in plasma concentration, lower potency, and fewer adverse effects than prednisolone and dexamethasone.5,8 Based on endogenous production, dosing replacement regimens vary from 7.5 to 15 mg/m2/day, divided into two, three, or four doses.19 The first and largest dose should be taken at awakening, the next in the early afternoon to avoid sleep disturbances. Small and frequent dosing mimic the physiological rhythm of cortisol secretion, but high peak cortisol levels after drug assumption and prolonged periods of hypocortisolemia between doses are described.8,9 Some children experience low cortisol concentrations and symptoms of cortisol insufficiency (eg, fatigue, nausea, headache) despite modifications in dosing. This cohort of patients can take advantage of using a modified-release hydrocortisone formulation, such as Chronocort® and Plenadren®. Plenadren®, approved for adults, consists of a coating of hydrocortisone released rapidly, followed by a slow release of hydrocortisone from the tablet center. It is available as 5 and 20 mg tablets. Park et al demonstrate smoother cortisol profiles and normal growth and weight gain patterns using Plenadren® in children.59 In a few cases, the continuous subcutaneous infusion of hydrocortisone using insulin pump technology proved to be a feasible, well-tolerated and safe option for selected patients with poor response to conventional therapy.19

Monitoring glucocorticoid therapy is based on growth, weight gain, and well-being. Cortisol measurements are usually not useful, apart from cases when a discrepancy between daily doses and patient symptoms exists.15 The concomitant use of hydrocortisone and CYP3A4 inducers, such as Rifampicin, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine, requires an increased dose of glucocorticoids. Conversely, the inhibition of CYP3A4 impairs hydrocortisone metabolism.5

Mineralocorticoid replacement is unnecessary if the patient has a normal renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis and, hence, normal aldosterone secretion, as well as in CAI. By contrast, patients with PAI and confirmed aldosterone deficiency need fludrocortisone at the dosage of 0.1–0.2 mg/day when given together with hydrocortisone, which has some mineralocorticoid activity. When using other synthetic glucocorticoids for replacement, higher fludrocortisone doses may be needed. Infants younger than one year should also be supplemented with sodium chloride due to their relatively low dietary sodium intake and relative renal resistance to mineralocorticoids. The dose is approximately 1 gram (17 mEq) daily.19

Surgery and anesthesia increase the glucocorticoid requirement during the pre-, intra-, and post-operative periods (Table 4). All children with AI should receive an intravenous dose of hydrocortisone at induction (2 mg/kg for minor or major surgery under general anesthesia). For minor procedures or sedation, the child should receive a double morning dose of hydrocortisone orally.60

Adrenal crisis is a life-threatening condition, treatment is effective if administered promptly, and it must not be delayed for any reason. Hydrocortisone should be administered as soon as possible with an intravenous bolus of 4 mg/kg followed by a continuous infusion of 2 mg/kg/day until stabilization. In the alternative, it can be administered as a bolus every four hours intravenous or intramuscular. In difficult peripheral venous access, the intramuscular route must be used as the first choice. In order to counteract hypotension, a bolus of normal saline 0.9% should be given at a dose of 20 mL/kg; it can repeat up to a total of 60 mL/kg within one hour for shock. If there is hypoglycemia, 10% dextrose at a 5 mL/kg dose should be administered.5,19,61,62

Patients with AI require additional doses of glucocorticoids in case of physiologic stress such as illness or surgical procedures to avoid an adrenal crisis. Home management of illness with a fever (> 38°C), vomiting or diarrhea, is based on the increase from two to three times the usual dose orally. If the child is unable to tolerate oral therapy, intramuscular injection of hydrocortisone should be administered (Table 4).

Education for caregivers and patients (if adolescent) is crucial to prevent adrenal crisis. They should recognize signs and symptoms of adrenal crisis and should receive a steroid emergency card with the sick day rules. Prescribing doctors should provide for additional oral glucocorticoids and adequate training in hydrocortisone emergency self-injection.

Abbreviations

AI, adrenal insufficiency; PAI, primary adrenal insufficiency; CAI, central adrenal insufficiency; HPA, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone; POMC, pro-opiomelanocortin; CAH, congenital adrenal hyperplasia; STAR, steroidogenic acute regulatory; 21OHD, 21-hydroxylase deficiency; 11BOHD, 11-B-hydroxylase deficiency; P450scc, P450 cytochrome side-chain cleavage deficiency; 17-OHP, 17-hydroxyprogesterone; NCCAH, non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia; ALD, adrenoleukodystrophy; VLCFA, very long-chain fatty acids; CMPD, combined multiple pituitary hormone deficiency; GHD, growth hormone deficiency; MSH, melanocyte stimulating hormone; IUGR, intrauterine growth restriction; APS1, autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1; SDSST, standard dose short synacthen test; LDSST, low dose short synacthen test.

Take Home Messages

  1. In neonates and infants CAH is the commonest cause of PAI, causing almost 71.8% of cases.
  2. Adrenoleukodystrophy should be considered in any male with hypoadrenalism.
  3. Unexplained hyponatremia, hyperpigmentation and the loss of pubic and axillary hair should raise the suspicion of AI.
  4. Adrenal insufficiency can present with non-specific clinical features; therefore a single cortisol measurement should be included in the biochemical work-up of an unwell child.
  5. Patients and parents should be well-trained in adrenal crisis recognition and management.

Disclosure

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

References

1. Charmandari E, Nicolaides N, Chrousos G. Adrenal insufficiency. Lancet. 2021;383(9935):2152–2167. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61684-0

2. White PC. Adrenocortical insufficiency. In: Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. Elsevier. 2019:11575–11617.

3. White PC. Physiology of the adrenal gland. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. Elsevier. 2019.

4. Butler G, Kirk J. Adrenal gland disorders. In: Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes. Oxford University Press. 2020:274–288.

5. Patti G, Guzzeti C, Di Iorgi N, Loche S. Central adrenal insufficiency in children and adolescents. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;32(4):425–444. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2018.03.012

6. Martin-grace J, Dineen R, Sherlock M, Thompson CJ. Adrenal insufficiency: physiology, clinical presentation and diagnostic challenges. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;505:78–91. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2020.01.029

7. Shaunak M, Blair JC, Davies JH. How to interpret a single cortisol measurement. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract. 2020;105:347–351. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2019-318431

8. Park J, Didi M, Blair J. The diagnosis and treatment of adrenal insuf fi ciency during childhood and adolescence. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101:860–865. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2015-308799

9. Husebye ES, Pearce SH, Krone NP, Kämpe O. Adrenal insufficiency. Lancet. 2021;397:613–629. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00136-7

10. Speiser P, Azziz R, Baskin L, et al. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(9):4133–4160. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-2631

11. Buonocore F, McGlacken-Byrne S, Del Valle I, Achermann J. Current insights into adrenal insufficiency in the newborn and young infant. Front Pediatr. 2020;8:619041. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.619041

12. Bacila I, Elder C, Krone N. Update on adrenal steroid hormone biosynthesis and clinical implications. Arch Dis Child. 2019;104(12):1223–1228. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2017-313873

13. Buonocore F, Maharaj A, Qamar Y, et al. Genetic analysis of pediatric primary adrenal insufficiency of unknown etiology: 25 years’ experience in the UK. J Endocr Soc. 2021;5(8):1–15. doi:10.1210/jendso/bvab086

14. Balsamo A, Baronio F, Ortolano R, et al. Congenital adrenal hyperplasias presenting in the newborn and young infant. Front Pediatr. 2020;8:593315. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.593315

15. Hahner S, Ross RJ, Arlt W, et al. Adrenal insufficiency. Nat Rev Dis Prim. 2021;7(1):1–24. doi:10.1038/s41572-021-00252-7

16. Krude H, Biebermann H, Luck W, et al. Severe early-onset obesity, adrenal insufficiency and red hair pigmentation caused by POMC mutations in humans. Nat Genet. 1998;19:155–157. doi:10.1038/509

17. Vallette-Kasic S, Brue T, Pulichino A-M, et al. Congenital isolated adrenocorticotropin deficiency: an underestimated cause of neonatal death, explained by TPIT gene mutations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:1323–1331. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1300

18. Alatzoglou K, Dattani M. Genetic forms of hypopituitarism and their manifestation in the neonatal period. Early Hum Dev. 2009;85:705–712. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2009.08.057

19. Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101:364–389. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1710

20. Kurtoğlu S, Hatipoğlu N. Non-classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia in childhood. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2017;9(1):1–7. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.3378

21. Livadas S, Bothou C. Management of the female with non-classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NCCAH): a patient-oriented approach. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:366. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00366

22. Miller W. Disorders in the initial steps of steroid hormone synthesis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2017;165:18–37. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.03.009

23. Nowaczyk M, Irons M. Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome: phenotype, natural history, and epidemiology. Am J Med Genet Part C Semin Med Genet. 2012;160:250–262. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.31343

24. Anderson R, Byrum R, Coates P, Sando G. Mutations at the lysosomal acid cholesteryl ester hydrolase gene locus in Wolman disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91:2718. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.7.2718

25. Jones S, Rojas-Caro S, Quinn A. Survival in infants treated with sebelipase Alfa for lysosomal acid lipase deficiency: an open-label, multicenter, dose-escalation study. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2017;12:25. doi:10.1186/s13023-017-0587-3

26. Muscatelli F, Strom T, Walker A, et al. Mutations in the DAX-1 gene give rise to both X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Nature. 1994;372:672–676. doi:10.1038/372672a0

27. Vilain E, Merrer M, Lecointre C, et al. IMAGe, a new clinical association of Intrauterine growth retardation, metaphyseal dysplasia, adrenal hypoplasia congenita, and Genital anomalies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84(12):4335–4340. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.12.6186

28. Narumi S, Amano N, Ishii T, et al. SAMD9 mutations cause a novel multisystem disorder, MIRAGE syndrome, and are associated with loss of chromosome 7. Nat Genet. 2016;48:792–797. doi:10.1038/ng.3569

29. Maharaj A, Maudhoo A, Chan L, et al. Isolated glucocorticoid deficiency: genetic causes and animal models. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2019;189:73–80. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.012

30. Metherell L, Chapple J, Cooray S, et al. Mutations in MRAP, encoding a new interacting partner of the ACTH receptor, cause familial glucocorticoid deficiency type 2. Nat Genet. 2005;37:166–170. doi:10.1038/ng1501

31. Prpic I, Huebner A, Persic M, et al. Triple A syndrome: genotype-phenotype assessment. Clin Genet. 2003;63:415. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0004.2003.00070.x

32. Kurnaz E, Duminuco P, Aycan Z, et al. Clinical and genetic characterisation of a series of patients with triple A syndrome. Eur J Pediatr. 2018;177(3):363–369. doi:10.1007/s00431-017-3068-8

33. Brett E, Auchus R. Genetic forms of adrenal insufficiency. Endocr Pract. 2015;21(4):395–399. doi:10.4158/EP14503.RA

34. Prasad R, Hadjidemetriou I, Maharaj A, et al. Sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase mutations cause primary adrenal insufficiency and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2017;127:942–953. doi:10.1172/JCI90171

35. Moser H, Moser A, Smith K, et al. Adrenoleukodystrophy: phenotypic variability and implications for therapy. J Inherit Metab Dis. 1992;15:645. doi:10.1007/BF01799621

36. Bradbury A, Ream M. Recent advancements in the diagnosis and treatment of leukodystrophies. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2021;37:100876. doi:10.1016/j.spen.2021.100876

37. Engelen M, Kemp S. X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy: pathogenesis and treatment. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2014;14(10):486. doi:10.1007/s11910-014-0486-0

38. Federico A, de Visser M. New disease modifying therapies for two genetic childhood-onset neurometabolic disorders (metachromatic leucodystrophy and adrenoleucodystrophy). Neurol Sci. 2021;42(7):2603–2606. doi:10.1007/s10072-021-05412-x

39. Artuch R, Pavía C, Playán A, et al. Multiple endocrine involvement in two pediatric patients with Kearns-Sayre syndrome. Horm Res. 1998;50:99. doi:10.1159/000023243

40. Peterson P, Pitkänen J, Sillanpää N, et al. Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy candidiasis ectodermal dystrophy (APECED): a model disease to study molecular aspects of endocrine autoimmunity. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;135:348. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02384.x

41. Brewer K, Parziale VS, Eisenbarth GS, et al. Screening patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus for adrenal insufficiency. New Engl J Med. 1997;337:202. doi:10.1056/NEJM199707173370314

42. Yu L, Brewer K, Gates S, et al. DRB1*04 and DQ alleles: expression of 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies and risk of progression to Addison’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:328. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.1.5414

43. Myhre A, Aarsetøy H, Undlien D, et al. High frequency of coeliac disease among patients with autoimmune adrenocortical failure. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2003;38:511. doi:10.1080/00365520310002544

44. Elfström P, Montgomery S, Kämpe O, et al. Risk of primary adrenal insufficiency in patients with celiac disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:3595. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0960

45. Coco G, Dal Pra C, Presotto F, et al. Estimated risk for developing autoimmune Addison’s disease in patients with adrenal cortex autoantibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(5):1637–1645. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-0860

46. Yamamoto YT. Latent adrenal insufficiency: concept, clues to detection, and diagnosis. Endocr Pract. 2018;24(8):746–755. doi:10.4158/EP-2018-0114

47. Laureti S, De Bellis A, Muccitelli V, et al. Levels of adrenocortical autoantibodies correlate with the degree of adrenal dysfunction in subjects with preclinical Addison’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:3507–3511. doi:10.1210/jcem.83.10.5149

48. Baker P, Nanduri P, Gottlieb P, et al. Predicting the onset of Addison’s disease: ACTH, renin, cortisol and 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies. Clin Endocrinol. 2012;76:617–624. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2011.04276.x

49. Thuillier P, Kerlan V. Subclinical adrenal diseases: silent pheochromocytoma and subclinical Addison’s disease. Ann Endocrinol. 2012;73(Suppl 1):S45–S54. doi:10.1016/S0003-4266(12)70014-8

50. Raverot V, Richet C, Morel Y, Raverot G, Borson-Chazot F. Establishment of revised diagnostic cut-offs for adrenal laboratory investigation using the new Roche Diagnostics Elecsys® Cortisol II assay. Ann Endocrinol. 2016;77(5):620–622. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2016.05.002

51. Grossman A. The diagnosis and management of central hypoadrenalism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:4855e63. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-0982

52. Petersenn S, Quabbe HJ, Schöfl C, et al. The rational use of pituitary stimulation tests. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2010;107(25):437–443. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0437

53. Kline GA, Buse J, Krause RD. Clinical implications for biochemical diagnostic thresholds of adrenal sufficiency using a highly specific cortisol immunoassay. Clin Biochem. 2017;50(9):475–480. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2017.02.008

54. Agwu JC, Spoudeas H, Hindmarsh PC, Pringle PJ, Brook CGD. Tests of adrenal insufficiency. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80(4):330–333. doi:10.1136/adc.80.4.330

55. Maghnie M, Uga E, Temporini F, et al. Evaluation of adrenal function in patients with growth hormone deficiency and hypothalamic-pituitary disorders: comparison between insulin-induced hypoglycemia, low-dose ACTH, standard ACTH and CRH stimulation tests. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005;152:735–741. doi:10.1530/eje.1.01911

56. Kazlauskaite R, Maghnie M. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of central adrenal insufficiency in children. Endocr Dev. 2010;17:96e107.

57. Chanson P, Guignat L, Goichot B, et al. Group 2: adrenal insufficiency: screening methods and confirmation of diagnosis. Ann Endocrinol. 2017;78:495e511. doi:10.1016/j.ando.2017.10.005

58. Ospina N, Al Nofal A, Bancos I, et al. ACTH stimulation tests for the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(2):427–434. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1700

59. Park J, Das U, Didi M, et al. The challenges of cortisol replacement therapy in childhood: observations from a case series of children treated with modified-release hydrocortisone. Pediatr Drugs. 2018;20(6):567–573. doi:10.1007/s40272-018-0306-0

60. Woodcock T, Barker P, Daniel S, et al. Guidelines for the management of glucocorticoids during the peri-operative period for patients with adrenal insuf fi ciency Guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists, the Royal College of Physicians and the Society for Endocrinology UK. Anaesthesia. 2020;75:654–663. doi:10.1111/anae.14963

61. Rushworth R, Torpy DJ, Falhammar H. Adrenal crisis. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(9):852–861. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1807486

62. Miller BS, Spencer SP, Geffner ME, et al. Emergency management of adrenal insufficiency in children: advocating for treatment options in outpatient and field settings. J Investig Med. 2020;68:16–25. doi:10.1136/jim-2019-000999

Creative Commons License This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms.

Download Article [PDF]

From https://www.dovepress.com/pediatric-adrenal-insufficiency-challenges-and-solutions-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

Filed under: Addison's disease, adrenal crisis | Tagged: , , , , , | Leave a comment »

Adrenal Fatigue: Faux Diagnosis?

Posted on November 30, 2021 by MaryO

This article is based on reporting that features expert sources.

U.S. News & World Report

Adrenal Fatigue: Is It Real?

You may have heard of so-called ‘adrenal fatigue,’ supposedly caused by ongoing emotional stress. Or you might have come across adrenal support supplements sold online to treat it. But if someone suggests you have the controversial, unproven condition, seek a second opinion, experts say. And if someone tries to sell you dietary supplements or other treatments for adrenal fatigue, be safe and save your money.

Tired man sitting at desk in modern office

(GETTY IMAGES)

Physicians tend to talk about ‘reaching’ or ‘making’ a medical diagnosis. However, when it comes to adrenal fatigue, endocrinologists – doctors who specialize in diseases involving hormone-secreting glands like the adrenals – sometimes use language such as ‘perpetrating a diagnosis,’ ‘misdiagnosis,’ ‘made-up diagnosis,’ ‘a fallacy’ and ‘nonsense.’

About 20 years ago, the term “adrenal fatigue” was coined by Dr. James Wilson, a chiropractor. Since then, certain practitioners and marketers have promoted the notion that chronic stress somehow slows or shuts down the adrenal glands, causing excessive fatigue.

“The phenomenon emerged from the world of integrative medicine and naturopathic medicine,” says Dr. James Findling, a professor of medicine and director of the Community Endocrinology Center and Clinics at the Medical College of Wisconsin. “It has no scientific basis, and there’s no merit to it as a clinical diagnosis.”

An online search of medical billing code sets in the latest version of the International Classification of Diseases, or the ICD-10, does not yield a diagnostic code for ‘adrenal fatigue’ among the 331 diagnoses related either to fatigue or adrenal conditions or procedures.

In a March 2020 position statement, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology addressed the use of adrenal supplements “to treat common nonspecific symptoms due to ‘adrenal fatigue,’ an entity that has not been recognized as a legitimate diagnosis.”

The position statement warned of known and unknown health risks of off-label use and misuse of hormones and supplements in patients without an established endocrine diagnosis, as well as unnecessary costs to patients and the overall health care system.

Study after study has refuted the legitimacy of adrenal fatigue as a medical diagnosis. An August 2016 systematic review combined and analyzed data from 58 studies on adrenal fatigue including more than 10,000 participants. The conclusion in a nutshell: “Adrenal fatigue does not exist,” according to review authors in the journal BMC Endocrine Disorders.

Adrenal Action

You have two adrenal glands in your body. These small triangular glands, one on top of each kidney, produce essential hormones such as aldosterone, cortisol and male sex hormones such as DHEA and testosterone.

Cortisol helps regulate metabolism: How your body uses fat, protein and carbohydrates from food, and cortisol increases blood sugar as needed. It also plays a role in controlling blood pressure, preventing inflammation and regulating your sleep/wake cycle.

As your body responds to stress, cortisol increases. This response starts with signals between two sections in the brain: The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, which act together to release a hormone that stimulates the adrenal glands to make cortisol. This interactive unit is called the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis.

While some health conditions really do affect the body’s cortisol-making ability, adrenal fatigue isn’t among them.

“There’s no evidence to support that adrenal fatigue is an actual medical condition,” says Dr. Mary Vouyiouklis Kellis, a staff endocrinologist at Cleveland Clinic. “There’s no stress connection in the sense that someone’s adrenal glands will all of a sudden just stop producing cortisol because they’re so inundated with emotional stress.”

If anything, adrenal glands are workhorses that rise to the occasion when chronic stress occurs. “The last thing in the body that’s going to fatigue are your adrenal glands,” says Dr. William F. Young Jr., an endocrinology clinical professor and professor of medicine in the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. “Adrenal glands are built for stress – that’s what they do. Adrenal glands don’t fatigue. This is made up – it’s a fallacy.”

The idea of adrenal glands crumbling under stress is “ridiculous,” Findling agrees. “In reality, if you take a person and subject them to chronic stress, the adrenal glands don’t shut down at all,” Findling says. “They keep making cortisol – it’s a stress hormone. In fact, the adrenal glands are just like the Energizer Bunny – they just keep going. They don’t stop.”

Home cortisol tests that allow consumers to check their own levels can be misleading, Findling says. “Some providers who make this (adrenal fatigue) diagnosis, provide patients with testing equipment for doing saliva cortisol levels throughout the day,” he says. “And then, regardless of what the results are, they perpetrate this diagnosis of adrenal fatigue.”

Saliva cortisol is a legitimate test that’s frequently used in diagnosing Cushing’s syndrome, or overactive adrenal glands, Findling notes. However, he says, a practitioner pursuing an adrenal fatigue diagnosis could game the system. “What they do is: They shape a very narrow normal range, so narrow, in fact, that no normal human subject could have all their saliva cortisol (levels) within that range throughout the course of the day,” he says. “Then they convince the poor patients that they have adrenal fatigue phenomena and put them on some kind of adrenal support.”

Loaded Supplements

How do you know what you’re actually getting if you buy a dietary supplement marketed for adrenal fatigue or ‘adrenal support’ use? To find out, researchers purchased 12 such supplements over the counter in the U.S.

Laboratory tests revealed that all supplements contained a small amount of thyroid hormone and most contained at least one steroid hormone, according to the study published in the March 2018 issue of Mayo Clinic Proceedings. “These results may highlight potential risks for hidden ingredients in unregulated supplements,” the authors concluded.

Supplements containing thyroid hormones or steroids can interact with a patient’s prescribed medications or have other side effects.

“Some people just assume they have adrenal fatigue because they looked it up online when they felt tired and they ultimately buy these over-the-counter supplements that can be very dangerous at times,” Vouyiouklis Kellis says. “Some of them contain animal (ingredients), like bovine adrenal extract. That can suppress the pituitary axis. So, as a result, your body stops making its own cortisol or starts making less of it, and as a result, you can actually worsen the condition rather than make it better.”

Any form of steroid from outside the body, whether a prescription drug like prednisone or extract from cows’ adrenal glands, “can shut off the pituitary,” Vouyiouklis Kellis explains. “Because it’s signaling to the pituitary like: Hey, you don’t need to stimulate the adrenals to make cortisol, because this patient is taking it already. So, as a result, the body ultimately doesn’t produce as much. And, so, if you rapidly withdraw that steroid or just all of a sudden decide not to take it anymore, then you can have this acute response of low cortisol.”

Some adrenal support products, such as herbal-only supplements, may be harmless. However, they’re unlikely to relieve chronic fatigue.

Fatigue: No Easy Answers

If you’re suffering from ongoing fatigue, it’s frustrating. And you’re not alone. “I have fatigue,” Young Jr. says. “Go to the lobby any given day and say, ‘Raise your hand if you have fatigue.’ Most of the people are going to raise their hands. It’s a common human symptom and people would like an easy answer for it. Usually there’s not an easy answer. I think ‘adrenal fatigue’ is attractive because it’s like: Aha, here’s the answer.”

There aren’t that many causes of endocrine-related fatigue, Young Jr. notes. “Hypothyroidism – when the thyroid gland is not working – is one.” Addison’s disease, or adrenal insufficiency, can also lead to fatigue among a variety of other symptoms. Established adrenal conditions – like adrenal insufficiency – need to be treated.

“In adrenal insufficiency, there is an intrinsic problem in the adrenal gland’s inability to produce cortisol,” Vouyiouklis Kellis explains. “That can either be a primary problem in the adrenal gland or an issue with the pituitary gland not being able to stimulate the adrenal to make cortisol.”

Issues can arise even with necessary medications. “For example, very commonly, people are put on steroids for various reasons: allergies, ear, nose and throat problems,” Vouyiouklis Kellis says. “And with the withdrawal of the steroids, they can ultimately have adrenal insufficiency, or decrease in cortisol.”

Opioid medications for pain also result in adrenal sufficiency, Vouyiouklis Kellis says, adding that this particular side effect is rarely discussed. People with a history of autoimmune disease can also be at higher risk for adrenal insufficiency.

Common symptoms of adrenal insufficiency include:

  • Fatigue.
  • Weight loss.
  • Decreased appetite.
  • Salt cravings.
  • Low blood pressure.
  • Abdominal pain.
  • Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea.
  • Muscle weakness.
  • Hyperpigmentation (darkening of the skin).
  • Irritability.

Medical tests for adrenal insufficiency start with blood cortisol levels, and tests for the ACTH hormone that stimulates the pituitary gland.

“If the person does not have adrenal insufficiency and they’re still fatigued, it’s important to get to the bottom of it,” Vouyiouklis Kellis says. Untreated sleep apnea often turns out to be the actual cause, she notes.

“It’s very important to tease out what’s going on,” Vouyiouklis Kellis emphasizes. “It can be multifactorial – multiple things contributing to the patient’s feeling of fatigue.” The blood condition anemia – a lack of healthy red blood cells – is another potential cause.

“If you are fatigued, do not treat yourself,” Vouyiouklis Kellis says. “Please seek a physician or a primary care provider for evaluation, because you don’t want to go misdiagnosed or undiagnosed. It’s very important to rule out actual causes that would be contributing to symptoms rather than ordering supplements online or seeking an alternative route like self-treating rather than being evaluated first.”

SOURCES

The U.S. News Health team delivers accurate information about health, nutrition and fitness, as well as in-depth medical condition guides. All of our stories rely on multiple, independent sources and experts in the field, such as medical doctors and licensed nutritionists. To learn more about how we keep our content accurate and trustworthy, read our editorial guidelines.

James Findling, MDFindling is a professor of medicine and director of the Community Endocrinology Center and Clinics at the Medical College of Wisconsin.

Mary Vouyiouklis Kellis, MDVouyiouklis Kellis is a staff endocrinologist at Cleveland Clinic.

William F. Young Jr., MDYoung Jr. is an endocrinology clinical professor and professor of medicine in the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota

From https://health.usnews.com/health-care/patient-advice/articles/adrenal-fatigue-is-it-real?

Filed under: Addison's disease, adrenal, Cushing's, symptoms | Tagged: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , | Leave a comment »

Novel Predictive Model for Adrenal Insufficiency in Dermatological Patients with Topical Corticosteroids Use: A Cross-Sectional Study

Posted on November 16, 2021 by MaryO

Purpose: This study aimed to identify predictive factors and to develop a predictive model for adrenal insufficiency (AI) related to topical corticosteroids use.
Methods: The research was conducted using a cross-sectional design. Adult patients with dermatological conditions who had been prescribed topical steroids for at least 12 months by the dermatology outpatient departments of the Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University from June through October 2020 were included. Data on potential predictors, including baseline characteristics and laboratory investigations, were collected. The diagnoses of AI were based on serum 8AM cortisol and low-dose ACTH stimulation tests. Multivariable logistic regression was used for the derivation of the diagnostic score.
Results: Of the 42 patients, 17 (40.5%) had AI. The statistically significant predictive factors for AI were greater body surface area of corticosteroids use, age < 60 years, and basal serum cortisol < 7 μg/dL. In the final predictive model, duration of treatment was added as a factor based on its clinical significance for AI. The four predictive factors with their assigned scores were: body surface area involvement 10– 30% (20), > 30% (25); age < 60 years old (15); basal serum cortisol of < 7 μg/dL (30); and duration of treatment in years. Risk of AI was categorized into three groups, low, intermediate and high risk, with total scores of < 25, 25– 49 and ≥ 50, respectively. The predictive performance for the model was 0.92 based on area under the curve.
Conclusion: The predictive model for AI in patients using topical corticosteroids provides guidance on the risk of AI to determine which patients should have dynamic ACTH stimulation tests (high risk) and which need only close follow-up (intermediate and low risk). Future validation of the model is warranted.

Keywords: adrenal insufficiency, topical corticosteroids, predictive model, skin diseases

Introduction

Topical corticosteroids are frequently used for inflammatory skin diseases owing to their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. Common indications for use include diseases such as psoriasis, eczema, atopic dermatitis, and vitiligo.1 In clinical practice, a variety of delivery vehicles and potencies of topical corticosteroids are used.1 Prolonged and/or inappropriate use of topical corticosteroids can lead to adverse side effects.2 These adverse side effects can be categorized as cutaneous and systemic side effects. The most common cutaneous side effect is skin atrophy. Systemic side effects include hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression, glaucoma, hyperglycemia and hypertension.3

One of the most worrisome adverse side effects from the use of topical corticosteroids is adrenal insufficiency (AI) resulting from HPA axis suppression. Topically applied corticosteroids can be absorbed systemically through the skin and can suppress the HPA axis.4–8 This adverse outcome, the inability to increase cortisol production after stress, can lead to adrenal crisis, which is potentially life-threatening. Tests that are normally used to diagnose or exclude AI include serum morning cortisol and the dynamic ACTH stimulation test.9

Secondary AI from percutaneous absorption of topical corticosteroids is less common than with parenteral or oral administration. The cumulative doses and the durations of oral corticosteroid therapy associated with HPA axis suppression have been well documented.10 Data regarding the dose and duration of oral corticosteroids and HPA axis suppression have similarly been well established. A study by Curtis et al reported that the use of oral prednisolone >7.5 mg/day for an extended period (>3 weeks) was linked to this adverse event, and that the incidence increased with duration.10 However, corresponding data for topical corticosteroids has been limited. The degree of risk of HPA axis suppression from topical corticosteroids use is associated with the level of percutaneous absorption which, in turn, depends on numerous factors including the age of the patient (younger patients are more susceptible), body surface area treated, quantity of topical corticosteroids used, potency of the drug, duration of therapy, body region of application, the associated compounds used, eg, urea or salicylic acid, the characteristics of the diseased skin, the degree of impairment of skin integrity, and the coexistence of hepatic and/or renal disease.11–13 One study reported that HPA axis suppression occurs when high potency steroids are administered at a cumulative dose per week of >50 g.2

Presently, there is a lack of data on predictive factors for AI and no predicative model of the relationship between secondary AI resulting from HPA axis suppression and topical corticosteroids use. A simple predictive model which could help preclude and predict the risk of AI which incorporates both demographic and biochemical data could potentially reduce the number of dynamic ACTH stimulation tests performed. This study aimed to identify potential predictive factors and to design an easy-to-use model for predicting the risk of AI following topical corticosteroids use in dermatological patients.

Materials and Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted with 42 patients who were seen at the dermatology outpatient departments at the Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University Hospital over a 5-month period (June – October 2020). The study protocol was approved by the Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Ethical Committee (Ethical number: MED-2563-07037). Recruited participants were adult dermatological patients (≥18 years) who had used topical corticosteroids for at least 12 months. Patients with pituitary or adrenal diseases, pregnant women and patients who had been treated with either systemic corticosteroids or other local corticosteroids were excluded. Those who meet all the inclusion criteria gave their informed consent prior to the study. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Adrenal Function Evaluation

Adrenal function was evaluated by serum morning (8 AM) cortisol and the low-dose ACTH stimulation test. Patients were instructed to suspend use of topical corticosteroids for at least 24 hours before serum morning cortisol measurement and ACTH stimulation tests. In those with serum morning cortisol between 3 and 17.9 µg/dL, ACTH stimulation tests were performed on the same day between 9–11AM to either exclude or diagnose AI. Serum cortisol concentrations were measured at 8 AM 0 (basal cortisol) as well as 20 and 40 minutes after 5 µg ACTH was administered intravenously.

Data Collection

Epidemiological data collected included gender, age, blood pressure, underlying dermatologic diseases, other underlying diseases, body surface area involvement, sensitive area involvement, topical corticosteroid potency, amount and duration of topical corticosteroids use, symptoms of AI and the presence of Cushingoid features. Biochemical data included serum cortisol at 8 AM, 0 (basal cortisol) and at 20 and 40 minutes after ACTH intravenous injection, serum creatinine, electrolytes and albumin. Serum cortisol levels were measured by electrochemiluminescence assay (ECLIA) (Elecsys® Cortisol II assay, Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Mannheim, Germany).

Definitions

An 8AM cortisol level of ❤ µg/dL or a peak serum cortisol level of <18 µg/dL at 20 or 40 minutes after an ACTH stimulation test was defined as having AI.14 Sensitive area involvement included the axilla, groin, face and genitalia. Topical corticosteroids are classified by potency based on a skin vasoconstriction assay, and range from ultra-high potency (class I) to low potency (class VII).15 Since some patients had concurrently used more than one class of corticosteroids in one treatment period, the new variable potency·dose·time (summary of corticosteroids potency (I–VII)16 multiplied by total doses (mg) of corticosteroids use and multiplied by duration (months) of corticosteroids use) was created. Symptoms of AI included lethargy, nausea and vomiting, orthostatic hypotension and significant weight loss. Significant weight loss was defined as a loss of 5% of body weight in one month or a loss of 10% over a period of six months.17 Having Cushingoid features was defined as at least one of the excess glucocorticoid features, eg, easy bruising, facial plethora, proximal myopathy, striae, dorsocervical fat pad, facial fullness, obesity, supraclavicular fullness, hirsutism, decreased libido and menstrual abnormalities.

Statistical Analysis

All statistical analyses were performed using Stata 16 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA). Categorical variables are reported as frequency and percentage, while continuous variables are reported as mean ± standard deviation or median and interquartile range (IQR), according to their distribution. For univariable comparison, Fisher’s exact probability test was used for categorical variables, and the independent t-test or the Mann–Whitney U-test was used for continuous variables. p-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Multivariable logistic regression was used in the derivation of the prediction model for AI. Predictors with significant p-values in the univariable analysis were included in the multivariable model. We also included age and treatment duration in the model due to the clinical significance of those factors.4,18 The clinical collinearity among the predictors was also evaluated before the selection of the predictors. We generated a weighted score for each predictor by dividing the logit coefficient of the predictor by the lowest coefficient in the model. The discriminative ability of the final multivariable model was assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve. The calibration of the scores was evaluated using the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test, where a p-value >0.01 was considered a good fit. For clinical applicability, the appropriate cut-off points for the scores were identified based on sensitivity and specificity. We identified one cut-off point with high sensitivity for ruling out AI and another cut-off point with high specificity for ruling in AI. The positive predictive value for each score category with its corresponding confidence interval were presented. A sample size of at least 25 patients with at least 5 patients with AI was estimated to give 80% power at the 5% significance level.4 There was no missing data in this study.

Results

Baseline characteristics and biochemical investigations are shown in Table 1. Forty-two patients with dermatological diseases were included in this study. Of these, 17 patients (40.5%) had AI of whom 5 (29.4%) were female. The mean age of the group was 56.5 ±15.4 years, the mean duration of treatment was 10.1 ± 6 years, and the majority of patients had psoriasis (n = 14, 82.4%). There was no significant difference in sex, age, duration of treatment, potency dose-time, comorbidities, or underlying skin disease between the AI and non-AI groups. The average body surface area of corticosteroids use was significantly higher in patients with AI than in the non-AI group (27.5 ±18.7 m2 and 10.7 ±11.7 m2, p < 0.001, respectively). Basal serum cortisol levels were significantly lower in the AI group (6.52 ± 4.04 µg/dL) than in the non-AI group (10.48 ± 3.45 µg/dL, p 0.003). Although lower serum morning cortisol levels were observed in the AI group, the difference was not statistically significant (5.24 ± 4.65 µg/dL vs 13.39 ± 15.68 µg/dL, p = 0.069). Three patients were identified as having Cushingoid features. All patients with Cushingoid features had AI.

Table 1 Comparison of Clinical Characteristics Between Patients with a History of Topical Corticosteroids Use for at Least 12 Months Who Were Diagnosed with Adrenal Insufficiency and Those without Adrenal Insufficiency (n = 42)

 

Based on the multivariate logistic regression analysis (shown in Table 2), the significant predictive factors for AI in patients who used topical corticosteroids for more than 12 months were body surface area of corticosteroids use of 10–30% and >30% (POR 18.9, p =0.042, and POR 59.2, p = 0.035, respectively), age less than 60 years (POR 13.8, p = 0.04), and basal serum cortisol of <7 µg/dL (POR 131.5, p = 0.003). Only serum basal cortisol was included in the final multivariable model as there was clinical collinearity among serum morning cortisol and basal cortisol as well as 20- and 40-minute cortisol measurements.

Table 2 Multivariable Model for Prediction of Adrenal Insufficiency in Patients with a History of Topical Corticosteroids Use for at Least 12 Months (n = 38)

 

Predictive risk score was created to determine the probability of patients having AI using the aforementioned three significant predictive factors from the multivariable analysis (Table 2). As previous studies have demonstrated that duration of treatment is a strong predictive factor for AI in corticosteroid users,4,18 this factor was also incorporated in the model. The transformed score for body surface area, age and basal serum cortisol had a range of 0 to 30. For treatment duration, the transformed score was based on cumulative years of treatment. The total score was categorized into three groups: low, intermediate, and high risk (Table 3).

Table 3 Accuracy of the Score to Rule in and Rule Out Adrenal Insufficiency in Patients with a History of Topical Corticosteroids Use for at Least 12 Months (n = 38)

 

The cut-off point of ≥50 suggests high risk for developing AI with a sensitivity of 46.2% and a specificity of 100%, a score of <25 suggests a low risk with a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 52%, and a score between 25 and 49 indicates an intermediate risk of having AI. The ROC curve for the model assessing predictive performance which included all significant factors had an AuROC of 0.92 (Figure 1). The Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test revealed non-statistically significant results (p = 0.599), indicating that our newly derived scoring system fits the data well.

Figure 1 Model discrimination via receiver operating characteristic curve in patients with a history of topical corticosteroids use for at least 12 months (n = 42).

 

Discussion

The present study proposes an easy-to-use predictive model for AI following topical corticosteroids use in dermatological patients based on demographic and biochemical factors. The accuracy of the model shows an excellent diagnostic accuracy of 92% based on AuROC. Currently, the diagnosis of AI in dermatological patients with topical corticosteroids use involves multiple steps including screening for serum morning cortisol followed by dynamic ACTH stimulation testing. The proposed simple predictive model, which requires only three demographic data items (age, body surface area of corticosteroids use, duration of use) and one biochemical test (serum basal cortisol), could potentially reduce the number of dynamic ACTH stimulation tests performed, resulting in cost- and time-saving for both patients and health-care facilities.

Based on the proposed cut-off points, we suggest screening of individuals at high risk for having AI, including serum morning cortisol and the ACTH stimulation tests to confirm a diagnosis of AI. If there is evidence of AI, the patient should begin to receive treatment for AI to reduce future complications. For those in the low-risk group, only clinical follow-up should be carried out. In the intermediate-risk group, we recommend regular and close biochemical follow-up including serum morning cortisol and clinical follow-up for signs and symptoms of AI. Signs and symptoms that should raise a high index of suspicion for AI include significant weight loss, nausea and/or vomiting, orthostatic hypotension and lethargy. However, this proposed predictive model was studied in adults and cannot simply be generalized and extrapolated to children or infants.

In our study, 40.5% of the patients were determined to have AI. A previous meta-analysis by Broersen et al reported the percentage of patients with AI secondary to all potencies of topical corticosteroids based on a review of 15 studies was 4.7%, 95% CI (1.1–18.5%).19 The higher prevalence of AI in our study could be a result of differences in patients’ baseline characteristics, eg, duration of treatment, corticosteroids potency and body surface area involvement.

In the predictive model, we incorporated both clinical and biochemical factors which are easy to obtain in actual clinical practice. Some of those predictive factors have been previously reported to be linked to AI. Body surface area of corticosteroids use larger than 10% found to be significantly related to AI, especially in patients with a lesion area of over 30%. This finding is consistent with a study by Kerner et al which suggests the extent of surface area to which the corticosteroids are applied may influence absorption of the drug.20 Regarding the age of the patients, our study found that individuals over 60 years old tended to be at high risk of AI following topical corticosteroids therapy. The underlying explanation is that the stratum corneum acts as a rate-limiting barrier to percutaneous absorption as the stratum corneum in younger individuals is thinner than in older people. Diminished effectiveness of topical corticosteroid treatment in older people was demonstrated in a study by Malzfeldt et al.21 Even though serum basal cortisol is not recommended as a standard test to diagnose AI, a prior study reported that it can be considered as an alternative choice to diagnose AI when serum morning cortisol results are not available. In fact, it has been reported that there is no difference in diagnostic accuracy between serum morning cortisol and basal cortisol22 which supports our finding that serum basal cortisol <7 µg/dL is one of the significant factors related to AI.

The final model found no statistically significant relationship between the incidence of AI and the duration of corticosteroids treatment. However, we decided to include this factor in the final model since previous publications have reported that the duration of treatment is a relevant risk factor for developing AI following continuous topical corticosteroids use. The duration of AI events has been reported to vary between 2 weeks to 18 months.4,18 Additionally, a case report of AI demonstrated that 5 years of topical corticosteroids use can cause AI.6 Together, this suggests that patients with a longer duration of topical corticosteroids use are at increased risk of AI, especially those who also have other risk factors. Although both potency and dosage of topical corticosteroids have been reported to be significantly linked to HPA axis suppression, the present study found only a non-significance link. This could be the result of the small sample size as well as of other factors, eg, body surface area involvement and serum cortisol levels, which could have masked the association between potency and dosage of topical corticosteroids with HPA suppression.

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to use these novel predictive factors to develop a predictive model for AI in patients using topical corticosteroids. This model has multiple potential implications. First, the model uses clinical and biochemical factors which are obtainable in many institutes. Second, the model’s risk score provides good diagnostic accuracy in terms of both sensitivity and specificity. Finally, each of the predictive factors in the model has an underlying pathophysiological explanation and is not due simply to chance.

There are some limitations in this study. First, the sample size is relatively small, although it does offer sufficient statistical power for each of the predictive factors. Second, further external validation is needed to validate the predictive performance of the model. Third, the cut-off level of serum cortisol after ACTH stimulation test was based on the older generation of ECLIA assay. There was a study proposed that the cut-off for serum cortisol in the newer generation of cortisol assay should be lower (~14–15 µg/dL) than the previous one (18 µg/dL).23 However, this proposed cut-off has not yet been established in the current guideline for AI. In the future, if the newer cut-off for serum cortisol will have been employed in the standard guideline, our predictive model may lead to overdiagnosis of AI.

Conclusions

The proposed predictive model uses both demographic and biochemical factors to determine the risk of AI in dermatological patients following topical corticosteroids use with a high level of diagnostic accuracy. This model has advantages in terms of a reduction in the number of dynamic ACTH stimulation tests needed, thus saving time and resources. Additionally, it can provide guidance to clinical practitioners regarding which patients should be closely followed up for development of AI. Future external validation of this predictive model is warranted.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Lamar G. Robert, PhD and Chongchit S. Robert, PhD for editing the manuscript.

Disclosure

The authors report no conflict of interest in this work.

References

1. Ference JD, Last AR. Choosing topical corticosteroids. Am Fam Physician. 2009;79(2):135–140.

2. Hengge UR, Ruzicka T, Schwartz RA, Cork MJ. Adverse effects of topical glucocorticosteroids. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;54(1):1–15;quiz 16–8. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2005.01.010

3. Rathi SK, D’Souza P. Rational and ethical use of topical corticosteroids based on safety and efficacy. Indian J Dermatol. 2012;57(4):251–259. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.97655

4. Carruthers JA, August PJ, Staughton RC. Observations on the systemic effect of topical clobetasol propionate (Dermovate). Br Med J. 1975;4(5990):203–204. doi:10.1136/bmj.4.5990.203

5. Staughton RC, August PJ. Cushing’s syndrome and pituitary-adrenal suppression due to clobetasol propionate. Br Med J. 1975;2(5968):419–421. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5968.419

6. Young CA, Williams IR, MacFarlane IA. Unrecognised Cushing’s syndrome and adrenal suppression due to topical clobetasol propionate. Br J Clin Pract. 1991;45(1):61–62.

7. Abma EM, Blanken R, De Heide LJ. Cushing’s syndrome caused by topical steroid therapy for psoriasis. Neth J Med. 2002;60(3):148–150.

8. Böckle BC, Jara D, Nindl W, Aberer W, Sepp NT. Adrenal insufficiency as a result of long-term misuse of topical corticosteroids. Dermatology. 2014;228(4):289–293. doi:10.1159/000358427

9. Ospina NS, Al Nofal A, Bancos I, et al. ACTH stimulation tests for the diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(2):427–434. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1700

10. Curtis JR, Westfall AO, Allison J, et al. Population-based assessment of adverse events associated with long-term glucocorticoid use. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;55(3):420–426. doi:10.1002/art.21984

11. Brazzini B, Pimpinelli N. New and established topical corticosteroids in dermatology: clinical pharmacology and therapeutic use. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2002;3(1):47–58. doi:10.2165/00128071-200203010-00005

12. Dhar S, Seth J, Parikh D. Systemic side-effects of topical corticosteroids. Indian J Dermatol. 2014;59(5):460–464. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.139874

13. Levin C, Maibach HI. Topical corticosteroid-induced adrenocortical insufficiency: clinical implications. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2002;3(3):141–147. doi:10.2165/00128071-200203030-00001

14. Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;101(2):364–389. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1710

15. Goa KL. Clinical pharmacology and pharmacokinetic properties of topically applied corticosteroids. A review. Drugs. 1988;36(Suppl 5):51–61. doi:10.2165/00003495-198800365-00011

16. Davallow Ghajar L, Wood Heickman LK, Conaway M, Rogol AD. Low risk of adrenal insufficiency after use of low- to moderate-potency topical corticosteroids for children with atopic dermatitis. Clin Pediatr. 2019;58(4):406–412. doi:10.1177/0009922818825154

17. Gaddey HL, Holder K. Unintentional weight loss in older adults. Am Fam Physician. 2014;89(9):718–722.

18. Melian EB, Spencer CM, Jarvis B. Clobetasol propionate foam, 0.05%. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2001;2(2):89–92;discussion 93. doi:10.2165/00128071-200102020-00005

19. Broersen LH, Pereira AM, Jørgensen JO, Dekkers OM. Adrenal insufficiency in corticosteroids use: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(6):2171–2180. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1218

20. Kerner M, Ishay A, Ziv M, Rozenman D, Luboshitzky R. Evaluation of the pituitary-adrenal axis function in patients on topical steroid therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;65(1):215–216. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2010.12.033

21. Malzfeldt E, Lehmann P, Goerz G, Lippold BC. Influence of drug solubility in the vehicle on clinical efficacy of ointments. Arch Dermatol Res. 1989;281(3):193–197. doi:10.1007/bf00456392

22. Manosroi W, Phimphilai M, Khorana J, Atthakomol P. Diagnostic performance of basal cortisol level at 0900-1300h in adrenal insufficiency. PLoS One. 2019;14(11):e0225255. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225255

23. Vogeser M, Kratzsch J, Ju Bae Y, et al. Multicenter performance evaluation of a second generation cortisol assay. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2017;55(6):826–835. doi:10.1515/cclm-2016-0400

Creative Commons License This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms.

Download Article [PDF]

 

From https://www.dovepress.com/novel-predictive-model-for-adrenal-insufficiency-in-dermatological-pat-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IJGM

Filed under: Addison's disease, adrenal, adrenal crisis, Diagnostic Testing | Tagged: , , , | Leave a comment »

Next Page »
%d bloggers like this: